Monday, December 6, 2010 ---The Edwards' Family made an announcement that I found personally disturbing. The wife of the former presidential candidate has decided to cease treatment for her cancer. Instead, she has opted to rest at home with friends and family. Also mentioned, she was comfortable and experiencing no pain. At that, the doctrine of double effect immediately came to mind.
The doctrine of double effect is used to justify the case where a doctor administers drugs to relieve extreme pain fully aware that this may hasten the patients' death.
Having done some research on euthanasia, the doctrine of double effect has become particularly fascinating to me. This principle closely resembles euthanasia also otherwise known as "mercy killing" with only one single detail differentiating the two: Intent.
Intent abolishes any doctor of any wrong doing which can be considered euthanasia---- or worst, murder. Apparently, one single word can determine the difference between being kind or being "Kevorkian", of being morally wrong or of being a Samaritan.
Elizabeth Edwards, estranged wife of John Edwards and mother of four, had succumbed to breast cancer the next day---Tuesday December 7, 2010.
.
Friday, December 10, 2010
Saturday, November 27, 2010
Animal Research
PETA is one well known animal rights organization committed to protect animals. Indeed, they are so popular they have become a household name. Many celebrities have become supporters of their campaign. Even to the point of posing naked in photographs to demonstrate their repulsion to animal exploitation. Yet, animals have always been used to benefit human kind. In fact, it is one of the very reasons we have survived as a species. We consume meat for food, put on fur for warmth, and use animal strength for labor. We even extract their hormones to treat many human diseases. Is the use of animals for research and experimental purposes any different?
Animal rights organizations maintain that the use of animal in research is unnecessary, primitive, and outdated. For instance, PETA (2010) claims that products get pumped into animal’s stomachs, rubbed into their skin, and squirted into their eyes for apparently no good reason. Instead, they cite computer models and cell structures as better alternatives (para. 3). Although our survival is no longer dependent on animals for food, warmth, or labor, the use of animals in research and experimentations is something that we cannot live without. We are a species plagued with many mental, behavioral, and medical problems. It is a fact that animal research has aided in the discoveries of many treatments including: Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, manic-depressive illness, obesity, drug addictions, depression, and many more disorders (Carlson, 2005, p. 19). The fact remains that these discoveries can only be made through biological research. Complex behavior and internal processes for one cannot be studied using computer models and cell structures as they cannot reflect the on goings within the context of a whole organism (Canadian Council on Animal care, 2010). They are simply no substitute. Without the use of animal research, we are unable to make progress in understanding and treating human diseases.
Supporters of animal rights argue that the use of animal research is inhuman and cruel. This is basically a misconception. The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) is a governing body that reviews all research involving animals. Its job is to make sure that the use of animals is justified by the benefits of the study. It also makes sure that any pain and suffering that might occur are minimized (American Psychological Associated, 2010, para. 1). The IACUC inspects project and facility that uses animals, reevaluates the overall animal care and use program, and helps develop and deliver training and educational programs to the research community and the public on animal care and use (Carlson, 2005, p. 18). In addition to this, researchers are required to consider the implementation of the so called, “Three R’s” of research design. The Three Rs stand for Replacement (using non-animal technique such as computer modeling and cell cultures when possible), Reduction (reducing amount of animals) and Refinement (minimizing animal suffering and treating them humanely) (Canadian Council on Animal care, 2010).
Animal activists claim that animal research is unreliable and even dangerous. They further argue that there is a physiological difference between humans and other animals that prevents the results from being relevant to humans. However, one is only to look at the many medical discoveries that have come through animal testing to see that this is not the case. The discovery of insulin, vaccines and antibiotics, open heart surgery techniques, organ transplants, in-vitro fertilization, HIV drugs, hormone replacement therapy, organ rejection, and many other came about because of animal research (Singh, 2009). It is true that there is a difference between the physiology of animals and that of humans but if you really think about it, it is also true about one human individual to another. The fact is, the physiology of humans and animals are similar enough to yield the significant discoveries and knowledge we are all benefiting from today.
There is always going to be those who oppose animal research. Yet, history has proven its effectiveness and usefulness. All individuals have, in one form or another, benefited from its findings. The reality is animal research is important and indispensible
References
Canadian Council on Animal Care. (2010). Satisfying the replacement principle. Retrieved
May 7, 2010 from http://www.ccac.ca/en/CCAC_Programs/ETCC/Module03/04.html
Carlson, N. R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th Ed.). Boston: Pearson
education, inc.
Herzog, H. (2010). American Psychological Association: Discussing ethnical issues in
psychological research. Retrieved May 7, 2010 from
http://www.apa.org/education/k12/ethical.aspx
PETA. (2010). PETA people for the ethical treatment of animals: Animal Testing.
Retrieved May 7, 2010 from http://www.peta.org/actioncenter/testing.asp
Animal rights organizations maintain that the use of animal in research is unnecessary, primitive, and outdated. For instance, PETA (2010) claims that products get pumped into animal’s stomachs, rubbed into their skin, and squirted into their eyes for apparently no good reason. Instead, they cite computer models and cell structures as better alternatives (para. 3). Although our survival is no longer dependent on animals for food, warmth, or labor, the use of animals in research and experimentations is something that we cannot live without. We are a species plagued with many mental, behavioral, and medical problems. It is a fact that animal research has aided in the discoveries of many treatments including: Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, manic-depressive illness, obesity, drug addictions, depression, and many more disorders (Carlson, 2005, p. 19). The fact remains that these discoveries can only be made through biological research. Complex behavior and internal processes for one cannot be studied using computer models and cell structures as they cannot reflect the on goings within the context of a whole organism (Canadian Council on Animal care, 2010). They are simply no substitute. Without the use of animal research, we are unable to make progress in understanding and treating human diseases.
Supporters of animal rights argue that the use of animal research is inhuman and cruel. This is basically a misconception. The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) is a governing body that reviews all research involving animals. Its job is to make sure that the use of animals is justified by the benefits of the study. It also makes sure that any pain and suffering that might occur are minimized (American Psychological Associated, 2010, para. 1). The IACUC inspects project and facility that uses animals, reevaluates the overall animal care and use program, and helps develop and deliver training and educational programs to the research community and the public on animal care and use (Carlson, 2005, p. 18). In addition to this, researchers are required to consider the implementation of the so called, “Three R’s” of research design. The Three Rs stand for Replacement (using non-animal technique such as computer modeling and cell cultures when possible), Reduction (reducing amount of animals) and Refinement (minimizing animal suffering and treating them humanely) (Canadian Council on Animal care, 2010).
Animal activists claim that animal research is unreliable and even dangerous. They further argue that there is a physiological difference between humans and other animals that prevents the results from being relevant to humans. However, one is only to look at the many medical discoveries that have come through animal testing to see that this is not the case. The discovery of insulin, vaccines and antibiotics, open heart surgery techniques, organ transplants, in-vitro fertilization, HIV drugs, hormone replacement therapy, organ rejection, and many other came about because of animal research (Singh, 2009). It is true that there is a difference between the physiology of animals and that of humans but if you really think about it, it is also true about one human individual to another. The fact is, the physiology of humans and animals are similar enough to yield the significant discoveries and knowledge we are all benefiting from today.
There is always going to be those who oppose animal research. Yet, history has proven its effectiveness and usefulness. All individuals have, in one form or another, benefited from its findings. The reality is animal research is important and indispensible
References
Canadian Council on Animal Care. (2010). Satisfying the replacement principle. Retrieved
May 7, 2010 from http://www.ccac.ca/en/CCAC_Programs/ETCC/Module03/04.html
Carlson, N. R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th Ed.). Boston: Pearson
education, inc.
Herzog, H. (2010). American Psychological Association: Discussing ethnical issues in
psychological research. Retrieved May 7, 2010 from
http://www.apa.org/education/k12/ethical.aspx
PETA. (2010). PETA people for the ethical treatment of animals: Animal Testing.
Retrieved May 7, 2010 from http://www.peta.org/actioncenter/testing.asp
Tuesday, June 8, 2010
More on Pheromones
Pheromones in Humans: Research and Studies
Lately, many researchers are interested in discovering pheromones in humans. Many are convinced that humans also emit pheromones that govern behavior (Carlson, 2005, p. 272). One study conducted by Russell, Switz, and Thompson (1980) collected sweat from the armpits of one female donor, mixed with alcohol, and swabbed under the noses of other participants. The results showed that the rest of the female participants’ menstrual cycle gradually synchronized with the female sweat donor of which the sweat sample was taken from (Carlson, 2005, p. 273).
Another similar study conducted by McClintock (1971) discovered an occurrence similar to that of the Whitten effect found in mice. She found women with close relationships and who spend many hours together tended to have synchronized cycles. Also, it was discovered that women who spent time with men tended to have shorter cycles. Those who spent less time with the opposite sex tended to have longer cycles (Carlson, 2005, p. 273). McClintock later teamed up with another researcher by the name of Stern and elaborated on this experiment. Here, they had nine women donate sweat from their underarm pits for 8 hours a day. Twenty women then received the combination of sweat and isopropyl alcohol. This mixture was dabbed under their noses. The results found that the receiving women’s cycle either sped up or slowed down. Specifically, women who received the pheromone during pre-ovulation had shorter monthly cycles by approximately two days. The women whose ovulations were occurring during the experiment had delayed cycles as much as one day and a half. A controlled group was also utilized on this study. This control group did not receive any pheromones. They had no changes in their cycle. It was also noted in this study that nasal congestion in participants hampered the effects of the pheromone (Seppa, 1998).
Pheromone Physiology
All three experiments utilize the olfactory organ in the detection of pheromones. However, contrary to what one would assume, the primary olfactory system is not responsible for pheromone stimulus processing. Instead, processing lies in an organ called the vomeronasal organ (VNO). The vomeronasal organ is a group of sensory receptors at the base of a duct leading into the nasal passages (Carlson, 2005, 270). . This organ is sensitive to “nonvolatile compounds found in urine or other substances” (Carlson, 2005, 272). It is found in most mammals with the exception of dolphins and whales. In humans, the presence of this organ is a controversial issue. There are scientists, however, that believe that the human vemeronasal organ is located near the bottom of the septal wall that divides the nose (Woronczuk, Medwid, Neumann, and Eshelman, 1999). This theory was tested by inserting a specially designed electrode into the VNO. When inserted into the olfactory cleft and exposed to pheromones, no changes were found. Yet, when placed in the VNO, neurons were recorded to be responding. It should also be noted that hormone levels in the blood also changed. It is believed that the VNO sends information to the brain’s hypothalamus which is responsible for bodily functions such as mating. It is also possible that the VNO communicates with the limbic system---the part of the brain responsible for emotional responses (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
The presence of the vemeronasal organ in humans would explain why nasal congestion hampered the effects of pheromones in the McClintock and Stern experiment
Perhaps pheromones can be better related and illustrated through the occurrence related to hysterectomy. Many women who have undergone this surgery report lack of sexual urges following the procedure. In an article by Michael D. Lemonick (2004, February), Lemonick features a woman by the name of Roslyn Washington. Ms. Washington claims that the hysterectomy procedure left her with side effects she wasn’t prepared for. Among these were a decrease in sexual activity, lack of sexual desire, and failure to become stimulated from glances, looks, and touches from the opposite sex. When Ms. Washington opted to receive transdermal testosterone, she was once again able to feel “stimulated” (Lemonick, 2004). When the testosterone treatment was stopped, her desire began to once again decrease. This perhaps indicates that pheromones are responsible for sexual desire and is necessary to trigger sexual responses.
Evolutionary Perspective
It seems that pheromones related to sexual behavior is tied closely to attractiveness and mate selection. It has been suggested that the scent of the human body is a signal of “phenotypic and genetic quality” (Thornhill & Gangestad, 1999). According to an article by Thronhill and Gangestad (1999, March) women who were at their higher period of fertility during ovulation found that the scents of men who have greater body bilateral symmetry more attractive. On the other hand, women in low fertility phases or those who are on hormone based contraceptive do not show this preference. Other studies found that men did not prefer the scent of symmetrical women. These perhaps suggest that women have a more evolved preference to mate and reproduce with men who posses good genes.
It is proposed that symmetry equates good and healthy genes which in turn produce offspring who are not only healthy and developmentally sound but one that can survive into adulthood (Carey, 2006). Evolutionary theorists would probably tie this in with the parental investment theory. This theory suggests that women are pickier in mate selection due to the fact that their minimum investment in childbearing involves 9 months plus the physical traumatic experience of childbirth. It can be said that women value sires with good genes because they seek to minimize the number of their offspring because their investment is so much greater (Boyd & Bee, 2006, p. 90). In contrast, this theory proposes that men value availability. They are less selective on their partners because their minimum investment in parenting only required a single act of sexual intercourse. It can also be pointed out that “men seek to maximize the likelihood of the survival species by maximizing the number of their offspring” (Boyd & Bee, 2006, 90). Thus, this would explain why men did not prefer the scent of symmetrical women in the experiment conducted by Thronhill and Gangestad.
Genetic Standpoint
Researchers have been found that women preferred male odors belonging to men who were genetically different from their own. Swiss zoologist, Claus Wedekind, conducted an experiment using 49 women and 44 men with a variety of MHC genes (PBS, 2001). MHC stands for major histocompatibility locus. These are “genes code for special protein markers that are attached to the surface of cells and help the body recognize whether a cell belongs to an organism or if it is an invader such as a bacteria or virus” (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
In this experiment the male participants were asked to wear T-shirts to wear for two nights. These t-shirts were then placed in a box armed with a “smelling hole” (PBS, 2001). The female participants were then invited to sniff the boxes and rate the odors according to “intensity, pleasantness, and sexiness” (PBS, 1999). Results showed that women were attracted to the smells belonging to men who were MHC different from themselves. It then can be concluded that an individual would be attracted most to a person who is genetic immunity to disease differs most from our own thus producing stronger, healthier children (PBS, 1999).
Interestingly, in another similar study conducted by Richardson (1996), it was found that women with similar MHC genes with specific males would be reminded of her brother or father. On the other hand, dissimilar MHC genes would remind her of a past or current boyfriend (Woronczuk et al., 1999). Another interesting finding of this research is on how this had an opposite effect on women who were using birth control pills. The article proposes that the birth control pill probably “trick[s] the body into thinking its pregnant, and women on the pill often report that they prefer smells that remind them of home and relatives” (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
(Hmmm....disturbing.....).
Anyway.....
Research on human pheromones is yielding intriguing results. Furthermore, it seems that human pheromones offer promising implications and uses in bettering female health and understanding attraction. So far, the author can see a variety of benefits pheromones knowledge can bring to human kind. This includes: menstrual regulation for those with irregular periods, fertility and conception problems, genetic disease prevention, and marital/couple therapy. Indeed, with the continued study of this relatively new concept applied to humans, the possibility of its uses and benefits to human kind are endless.
References
Carey, B. (2006, Feb.). The rules of attraction in the game of love. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
from http://www.livescience.com/health/060213_attraction_rules.html.
Carlson, N.R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Lemonick, M.D. (2004, February). The chemistry of desire. Time, 163(6), 50-55. Retrieved
May 18, 2010, from CBCA Complete. (Document ID: 557070811).
PBS. (1999). Sweaty t-shirts and human mate choice. Retrieved May 29, 2010. from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/l_016_08.html
Seppa, N. (1998, March). Nailing down pheromones in humans. Science
News, 153(11), 164. Retrieved May 16, 2010, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 27464966).
Thornhill, R. & Gangestad, S.W. (1999, March). The scent of symmetry: A human sex
pheromone that signals fitness? Retrieved May 18, 2010.
Woronczuk, J., Medwid, S., Neumann, L., and Eshelman, S. (1999). Are there human
pheromones? Retrieved May 29, 2010. from
http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/smell/attraction.html
Lately, many researchers are interested in discovering pheromones in humans. Many are convinced that humans also emit pheromones that govern behavior (Carlson, 2005, p. 272). One study conducted by Russell, Switz, and Thompson (1980) collected sweat from the armpits of one female donor, mixed with alcohol, and swabbed under the noses of other participants. The results showed that the rest of the female participants’ menstrual cycle gradually synchronized with the female sweat donor of which the sweat sample was taken from (Carlson, 2005, p. 273).
Another similar study conducted by McClintock (1971) discovered an occurrence similar to that of the Whitten effect found in mice. She found women with close relationships and who spend many hours together tended to have synchronized cycles. Also, it was discovered that women who spent time with men tended to have shorter cycles. Those who spent less time with the opposite sex tended to have longer cycles (Carlson, 2005, p. 273). McClintock later teamed up with another researcher by the name of Stern and elaborated on this experiment. Here, they had nine women donate sweat from their underarm pits for 8 hours a day. Twenty women then received the combination of sweat and isopropyl alcohol. This mixture was dabbed under their noses. The results found that the receiving women’s cycle either sped up or slowed down. Specifically, women who received the pheromone during pre-ovulation had shorter monthly cycles by approximately two days. The women whose ovulations were occurring during the experiment had delayed cycles as much as one day and a half. A controlled group was also utilized on this study. This control group did not receive any pheromones. They had no changes in their cycle. It was also noted in this study that nasal congestion in participants hampered the effects of the pheromone (Seppa, 1998).
Pheromone Physiology
All three experiments utilize the olfactory organ in the detection of pheromones. However, contrary to what one would assume, the primary olfactory system is not responsible for pheromone stimulus processing. Instead, processing lies in an organ called the vomeronasal organ (VNO). The vomeronasal organ is a group of sensory receptors at the base of a duct leading into the nasal passages (Carlson, 2005, 270). . This organ is sensitive to “nonvolatile compounds found in urine or other substances” (Carlson, 2005, 272). It is found in most mammals with the exception of dolphins and whales. In humans, the presence of this organ is a controversial issue. There are scientists, however, that believe that the human vemeronasal organ is located near the bottom of the septal wall that divides the nose (Woronczuk, Medwid, Neumann, and Eshelman, 1999). This theory was tested by inserting a specially designed electrode into the VNO. When inserted into the olfactory cleft and exposed to pheromones, no changes were found. Yet, when placed in the VNO, neurons were recorded to be responding. It should also be noted that hormone levels in the blood also changed. It is believed that the VNO sends information to the brain’s hypothalamus which is responsible for bodily functions such as mating. It is also possible that the VNO communicates with the limbic system---the part of the brain responsible for emotional responses (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
The presence of the vemeronasal organ in humans would explain why nasal congestion hampered the effects of pheromones in the McClintock and Stern experiment
Perhaps pheromones can be better related and illustrated through the occurrence related to hysterectomy. Many women who have undergone this surgery report lack of sexual urges following the procedure. In an article by Michael D. Lemonick (2004, February), Lemonick features a woman by the name of Roslyn Washington. Ms. Washington claims that the hysterectomy procedure left her with side effects she wasn’t prepared for. Among these were a decrease in sexual activity, lack of sexual desire, and failure to become stimulated from glances, looks, and touches from the opposite sex. When Ms. Washington opted to receive transdermal testosterone, she was once again able to feel “stimulated” (Lemonick, 2004). When the testosterone treatment was stopped, her desire began to once again decrease. This perhaps indicates that pheromones are responsible for sexual desire and is necessary to trigger sexual responses.
Evolutionary Perspective
It seems that pheromones related to sexual behavior is tied closely to attractiveness and mate selection. It has been suggested that the scent of the human body is a signal of “phenotypic and genetic quality” (Thornhill & Gangestad, 1999). According to an article by Thronhill and Gangestad (1999, March) women who were at their higher period of fertility during ovulation found that the scents of men who have greater body bilateral symmetry more attractive. On the other hand, women in low fertility phases or those who are on hormone based contraceptive do not show this preference. Other studies found that men did not prefer the scent of symmetrical women. These perhaps suggest that women have a more evolved preference to mate and reproduce with men who posses good genes.
It is proposed that symmetry equates good and healthy genes which in turn produce offspring who are not only healthy and developmentally sound but one that can survive into adulthood (Carey, 2006). Evolutionary theorists would probably tie this in with the parental investment theory. This theory suggests that women are pickier in mate selection due to the fact that their minimum investment in childbearing involves 9 months plus the physical traumatic experience of childbirth. It can be said that women value sires with good genes because they seek to minimize the number of their offspring because their investment is so much greater (Boyd & Bee, 2006, p. 90). In contrast, this theory proposes that men value availability. They are less selective on their partners because their minimum investment in parenting only required a single act of sexual intercourse. It can also be pointed out that “men seek to maximize the likelihood of the survival species by maximizing the number of their offspring” (Boyd & Bee, 2006, 90). Thus, this would explain why men did not prefer the scent of symmetrical women in the experiment conducted by Thronhill and Gangestad.
Genetic Standpoint
Researchers have been found that women preferred male odors belonging to men who were genetically different from their own. Swiss zoologist, Claus Wedekind, conducted an experiment using 49 women and 44 men with a variety of MHC genes (PBS, 2001). MHC stands for major histocompatibility locus. These are “genes code for special protein markers that are attached to the surface of cells and help the body recognize whether a cell belongs to an organism or if it is an invader such as a bacteria or virus” (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
In this experiment the male participants were asked to wear T-shirts to wear for two nights. These t-shirts were then placed in a box armed with a “smelling hole” (PBS, 2001). The female participants were then invited to sniff the boxes and rate the odors according to “intensity, pleasantness, and sexiness” (PBS, 1999). Results showed that women were attracted to the smells belonging to men who were MHC different from themselves. It then can be concluded that an individual would be attracted most to a person who is genetic immunity to disease differs most from our own thus producing stronger, healthier children (PBS, 1999).
Interestingly, in another similar study conducted by Richardson (1996), it was found that women with similar MHC genes with specific males would be reminded of her brother or father. On the other hand, dissimilar MHC genes would remind her of a past or current boyfriend (Woronczuk et al., 1999). Another interesting finding of this research is on how this had an opposite effect on women who were using birth control pills. The article proposes that the birth control pill probably “trick[s] the body into thinking its pregnant, and women on the pill often report that they prefer smells that remind them of home and relatives” (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
(Hmmm....disturbing.....).
Anyway.....
Research on human pheromones is yielding intriguing results. Furthermore, it seems that human pheromones offer promising implications and uses in bettering female health and understanding attraction. So far, the author can see a variety of benefits pheromones knowledge can bring to human kind. This includes: menstrual regulation for those with irregular periods, fertility and conception problems, genetic disease prevention, and marital/couple therapy. Indeed, with the continued study of this relatively new concept applied to humans, the possibility of its uses and benefits to human kind are endless.
References
Carey, B. (2006, Feb.). The rules of attraction in the game of love. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
from http://www.livescience.com/health/060213_attraction_rules.html.
Carlson, N.R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Lemonick, M.D. (2004, February). The chemistry of desire. Time, 163(6), 50-55. Retrieved
May 18, 2010, from CBCA Complete. (Document ID: 557070811).
PBS. (1999). Sweaty t-shirts and human mate choice. Retrieved May 29, 2010. from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/l_016_08.html
Seppa, N. (1998, March). Nailing down pheromones in humans. Science
News, 153(11), 164. Retrieved May 16, 2010, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 27464966).
Thornhill, R. & Gangestad, S.W. (1999, March). The scent of symmetry: A human sex
pheromone that signals fitness? Retrieved May 18, 2010.
Woronczuk, J., Medwid, S., Neumann, L., and Eshelman, S. (1999). Are there human
pheromones? Retrieved May 29, 2010. from
http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/smell/attraction.html
Friday, June 4, 2010
Fear and Pheromones
Pheromones are used for communication within a species. When an organism releases pheromones, it elicits either an overt or physiological reaction in the receiving organism of the same species (Carlson, 2007, p. 271). Pheromones were originally studied in insects. For instance, it was found that when ants rub their antennas together they are exchanging pheromones to confirm each other’s species and colony identity (Seppa, 1998). Later studies extended to smaller animals such as mice ( as previously discussed in Physiology and reproduction as posted on 1/10/10. e.i Lee-Boot effect and Whitten effect).
Research and interest on human pheromones is relatively new concentrating mainly on sexuality and attraction. It was interesting to find another angle of study on this interesting subject.
Apparantly, it has been discovered that there is a pheromone for fear. An article in The Pretonia News (2008) cited a research study that investigates whether sweat can give out signals that might subconsciously be picked up by others. US researchers collected sweat from 40 novice sky divers as they fell of to the earth by taping absorbant pads to their armpits. A second group of of volunteers were asked to smell the samples while having their brain scanned. It revealed increased activity in the areas of the brain associated with fear and emotional responses---the amygdala and hypothalamus (The Pretonia News, 2008).
The potential of the fear pheromone apparantly has peaked the interest of many scientist and researchers. At this time, the City University of London with the support of The Home Office Scientific Development Branch is developing the technology to produce two sensors that can "detect the unique chemical signiture of the fear pheromone" (Zolfagharifard, 2009). These devices will be specifically designed to identify terrorist at airport security checks and high profile events.This technology is foreseen to be developed within the next two to three years (Evening Chronicle, 2009).
There have also been reports of isolating the fear pheromone for warfare purposes. An article by Randerson (2008) cites the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, otherwise known as "DARPA" as one oganizational group funding this type of study. He further speculates the possibility of its use in inducing terror in enemy troops. DARPA, of course, denies that they will further fund any more research of this field or that it plans to use fear pheromones for military purposes.
References
James Randerson. (2008, December 5). You can smell fear, say scientists. The Hindu,***[insert pages]***. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1808742081).
Ellie Zolfagharifard. (2009, October). NEWS: Sensor system sniffs out trouble. The Engineer,12. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1886558551).
Carlson, N.R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Scientists sniff out 'fear sweat' :NWS. (2008, December 8). The Pretoria News,6. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1608424461).
A DEVICE that smells human [ ... ]. (2009, November 9). Evening Chronicle,4. Retrieved June 5, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1897025011).
Research and interest on human pheromones is relatively new concentrating mainly on sexuality and attraction. It was interesting to find another angle of study on this interesting subject.
Apparantly, it has been discovered that there is a pheromone for fear. An article in The Pretonia News (2008) cited a research study that investigates whether sweat can give out signals that might subconsciously be picked up by others. US researchers collected sweat from 40 novice sky divers as they fell of to the earth by taping absorbant pads to their armpits. A second group of of volunteers were asked to smell the samples while having their brain scanned. It revealed increased activity in the areas of the brain associated with fear and emotional responses---the amygdala and hypothalamus (The Pretonia News, 2008).
The potential of the fear pheromone apparantly has peaked the interest of many scientist and researchers. At this time, the City University of London with the support of The Home Office Scientific Development Branch is developing the technology to produce two sensors that can "detect the unique chemical signiture of the fear pheromone" (Zolfagharifard, 2009). These devices will be specifically designed to identify terrorist at airport security checks and high profile events.This technology is foreseen to be developed within the next two to three years (Evening Chronicle, 2009).
There have also been reports of isolating the fear pheromone for warfare purposes. An article by Randerson (2008) cites the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, otherwise known as "DARPA" as one oganizational group funding this type of study. He further speculates the possibility of its use in inducing terror in enemy troops. DARPA, of course, denies that they will further fund any more research of this field or that it plans to use fear pheromones for military purposes.
References
James Randerson. (2008, December 5). You can smell fear, say scientists. The Hindu,***[insert pages]***. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1808742081).
Ellie Zolfagharifard. (2009, October). NEWS: Sensor system sniffs out trouble. The Engineer,12. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1886558551).
Carlson, N.R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Scientists sniff out 'fear sweat' :NWS. (2008, December 8). The Pretoria News,6. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1608424461).
A DEVICE that smells human [ ... ]. (2009, November 9). Evening Chronicle,4. Retrieved June 5, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1897025011).
Saturday, April 10, 2010
Alcohol, Men, and "Oh, I didn't Know...."
Here's an excerpt from an really interesting article on unlawful sex with a minor. Thought, comments, reactions. Welcome.
An article from Egan and Cordan (2009) reads:
"One 'reasonable ground' for unlawful sex with a minor is mistaken age. Alcohol consumption and make-up afe often deemed further influences in impaired perception. Two hundred and fourty persons in bars and cafes rated the attractiveness of composite faces of immature and mature females with and without additional make-up, alcohol users having their concurrent blood-alcohol level measured using a breathalyser. A non-sex preference for immature faces over sexually mature faces were found. Alcohol and make-up did not inflate attractiveness ratings in immature faces. While alcohol consumption significantly inflated attractiveness ratings for for participants viewing made-up faces, greater alcohol consumption itself did not lead to overestimation of age. Although alcohol limited the processing of maturity cues in female observers, it had no effect on the age perception of males viewing female faces, suggesting male mate preference are not easily disrupted. Participants consistently overestimated the age of sexually immature- and sexually immature-faces by an average of 3.5 years. Our study suggests that even heavy alcohol consumption does not interfere with age-perception tasks in men, so it is not of itself an excuse for apparent mistaken age in cases of unlawful sex with a minor. "
Hmmmm.......
Reference
Egan, V. & Cordan, G. (2009) Barely legal: Is attraction and estimated age of young female faces disrupted by alcohol use, make-up, and the sex of the observer? British Journal of Psychology, 100(2), 415.. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from Research Library ( Document ID: 1673439601).
An article from Egan and Cordan (2009) reads:
"One 'reasonable ground' for unlawful sex with a minor is mistaken age. Alcohol consumption and make-up afe often deemed further influences in impaired perception. Two hundred and fourty persons in bars and cafes rated the attractiveness of composite faces of immature and mature females with and without additional make-up, alcohol users having their concurrent blood-alcohol level measured using a breathalyser. A non-sex preference for immature faces over sexually mature faces were found. Alcohol and make-up did not inflate attractiveness ratings in immature faces. While alcohol consumption significantly inflated attractiveness ratings for for participants viewing made-up faces, greater alcohol consumption itself did not lead to overestimation of age. Although alcohol limited the processing of maturity cues in female observers, it had no effect on the age perception of males viewing female faces, suggesting male mate preference are not easily disrupted. Participants consistently overestimated the age of sexually immature- and sexually immature-faces by an average of 3.5 years. Our study suggests that even heavy alcohol consumption does not interfere with age-perception tasks in men, so it is not of itself an excuse for apparent mistaken age in cases of unlawful sex with a minor. "
Hmmmm.......
Reference
Egan, V. & Cordan, G. (2009) Barely legal: Is attraction and estimated age of young female faces disrupted by alcohol use, make-up, and the sex of the observer? British Journal of Psychology, 100(2), 415.. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from Research Library ( Document ID: 1673439601).
Friday, March 26, 2010
Social Anxiety Disorder
The cognitive paradigm stresses the cognitive aspect of learning. It attemps to understand behavior and learning through the understanding of thought processes. Gestalt theorists, Jean Piaget, Edward Chace Tolman, and Albert Bandura mainly operated within this school of thought. Cognitive theorists such as those mentioned, reject behaviorism on grounds that complex behavior are not merely a matter of cause and effect but of one’s ability to make logical choices as to what makes the most sense. It is undeniable that social anxiety is one disorder that involves maladaptive cognitive processing. Unfortunately individuals possessing this disorder choose to engage in maladaptive behavior that not only contributes to its development but to its maintenance as well.
What is Social Anxiety Disorder?
Social anxiety is experienced when one feels the pressure to make good impressions yet is doubtful of their social abilities. Social anxiety is considered normal and adaptive when this is used constructively in job interviews, first dates, and meeting new people. It becomes maladaptive when the emotion is used primarily to avoid social situations (Schlenker & Leary, 1982). According to the Mayo Clinic (2009) social anxiety disorder, also known as social phobia, include signs and symptoms such as intense fear of being in situations that is unfamiliar, where one may feel judged, and where others may notice feelings of discomfort. Other signs are worrying about embarrassing oneself and avoiding doing things or speaking to others for fear of embarrassment (para 2). People labeled as shy and introverted may have social anxiety disorder but this is definitely not always the case. Shyness is a common individual characteristic mildly resembling the disorder. Social anxiety disorder is an extreme form of shyness.
Many individuals with social anxiety disorder report that they have been socially anxious since childhood. Temperamental shyness begins from infancy with it being characterized by face and eye contact avoidance (Brunet, Mondloch, and Schmidt, 2010). Brunet et al. (2010) conducted a study on temperamental shyness in children and found that shy children are less able to distinguish certain facial emotions in others. Perhaps this may be due to lessened sensitivity to certain facial cues leading to secondary negative effects in social behavior seen later on in life.
Bandura’s Observational Learning
Bandura’s observational learning contends that humans naturally imitate what they see others do (Hergenhan & Olson, 2005, p. 341). In applying this to children, it is natural to conclude that children learn from their parent’s behavior. Children of socially anxious parents tend to become socially anxious themselves. This is probably compounded by the pressure parents place on their children to make good impressions on others as they themselves are concerned over others opinions of themselves. One of parents many responsibilities as role models to their children is modeling and helping their children cope and navigate in the social world. Unfortunately, because of their inability to cope socially themselves, their children grow up to be socially isolated as well. These parents fail to offer their children opportunities to interact with others which prevent their children from learning that social interactions can be enjoyable and gratifying. It also communicates to their children that social situations should be feared.
Divorce and parent separation also have effects on children’s cognitive processing. It is found that children of divorce and separated parents witnessing marital and verbal aggression are factors that cause social phobias. Another factor to consider when it comes to parenting is parent-child attachment. Insecure attachment or lack of close relationships with an adult has been shown to cause shyness. As one navigates and learns social norms and etiquette, social schemas are developed.
Parent-child relationships and attachment are the earliest interpersonal relationship that a child comes to experience and as such have direct impact to personality development. Securely attached children have “attentive and responsive” parents; insecurely attached children have parents who are undependable, rejecting, and lacking in warmth (Ledley & Heimberg, 2006). It was found that children who formed secure parental attachment were more socially active, more popular, and less socially anxious. Early attachment patterns can influence the development of beliefs about social relationships. Secure-attached children come to “see others as accepting and dependable” while those that do not “see others as critical and unreliable” (Ledley & Heimberg, 2006).
Perceived Self Efficacy versus Real Self Efficacy
Bandura also believed in self regulation of behavior and how it relates to perceived
and real self efficacy. Bandura believed that human behavior is mainly self regulated. Perceived self efficacy is a person’s belief about his capabilities. It determines how one motivates oneself, think, feel, and behave. It develops from personal accomplishments and failures. It also arises from seeing others who are like oneself fail and succeed. High self efficacy means internal locus of control. Because of this they tend to try, accomplish, and persist more. Individuals with low self efficacy have external locus of control which makes them fearful. Individuals tend to experience fear in events over which they have no control and therefore are uncertain of (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005, p. 350).
Individuals with social phobias have a distorted image of how they are perceived socially. Because of their avoidance to face and eye contact they tend to miss certain social cues. Attention is focused inward unto themselves and on how they believe they are coming across to others. For individuals who are socially anxious, it is difficult to place their focus and attention to the social situation at hand. Rather, focus is placed on how they feel they are coming across and what is going on internally.
Model of Looming Vulnerability
Looming Vulnerability models depicts a cognitive style that evaluates and overestimates threats represented in environment. This model is based on the assumption that all organisms must be able to distinguish between increasing or decreasing threats in order to survive. For the well adjusted, perception is an accurate appraisal of a given situation, for the maladjusted it is not. The looming vulnerability cognitive style then relates to how one experiences an exaggerated state of danger or rising risk of threat. According to Riskind, Williams, and Joiner (2006), the looming cognitive style “functions as a danger schema that biases information processing, activates worry, and other defensive or compensatory behavior.
Numerous studies suggest that attention, judgment, and interpretation biases exist in those with social anxiety disorder. Studies involving Stroop and Dot-Probe tests investigate these biases and how the role the play in the development and maintenance of this form of anxiety. In a Stroop test participants are shown words written in various ink colors. Participants are then asked to say the ink color. Individuals with the disorder were slow to respond indicating that they were preoccupied with the meaning of the word rather than attending to the color. In the dot test, participants were showed either words or faces where one of which was neutral in emotion and the other containing emotional valence (such as socially threatening words, angry faces). A dot then replaced one of the words/faces. Socially anxious individuals were found to respond more quickly when the dot was placed in the emotionally charged word/face and reacted slower for the neutral word/face. Both the Stroop and the dot test studies demonstrate attention biases. That is, individuals with social anxiety disorder have a tendency to attend to stimulus that they find threatening (Ledley & Heimber, 2006).
Judgment and interpretation biases also exist for the social phobic. They also are likely to think that other people interpret physical symptoms they are showing such as blushing, shaking, or sweating as signs of anxiety problems or other psychiatric disorder (Ledley & Heimber, 2006). Because of how their information processing works, they fail to consider that others might be seeing these physical symptoms as merely being hot, cold, or tired. When recalling social situations, those with social anxiety disorders interpret ambiguous situations negatively although they are positive interpretations can be applicable. They are also predisposed to judge themselves negatively than they are actually judged and would judge others in similar situations. Cognitive processes of the socially phobic see social events as a threat because to them it is a means to potential of public embarrassment, criticism, and disapproval. They, in short, will generate threatening circumstances in their mind of rapidly intensifying danger of social rejection.
Life space and Law of Pragnanz
Gestalt psychology works mainly inside the frame of the cognitive paradigm. Gestalt theorist contends that humans (and animals for that matter) think in terms of wholes. That is, stimuli are configured on what they mean as a whole unit. Kurt Lewis, a gestalt psychologist, came up with the concept of life space to explain human motivation and behavior. Life space, according to Lewis, is the sum of all psychological facts. Psychological facts pertain to anything and everything an individual is aware of at any given point in time. It is its whole that then determines behavior. Unfortunately, the psychological facts the socially anxious deals with are negative beliefs full of distortions and biases in the processing of social information.
Another concept coming from Gestalt paradigm is Koffka’s Law of Pragnanz. It basically answers the question, “How does the mind organize sensory information and make it meaningful?”(Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005, p.270). It contends that thoughts are already pre-organized before it is even experienced. That is, external stimuli are actively transformed by the brain and it is this transformed information of which one becomes conscious of. Our conscious experiences therefore of events are a result of the brains interpretation of external stimuli.
Socially anxious individuals have an avoidance tendency to divert attention away from faces. On doing so, they miss out on important cues to make conversation go along smoothly. Eye contact is also avoided which can make them seem that they are lacking in social skills, are disinterested, or are uncomfortable. Interestingly, they will tend to seek out negative cues from people with whom they are interacting with. These cues include yawning, the person discontinuing the conversation, and the person gazing around room. Perhaps they choose to look for negative cues as this confirms their perceptions of self simply because this is the information and situation that they are most used to and comfortable with.
It is important to recognize if one’s cognitive style causes anxiety in social situations as awareness and knowledge can serve as a means of prevention and intervention not only for the adult affected but for subsequent generations as well.
References
Brunet, P., Mondloch, C., & Schmidt, L... (2010). Shy Children are Less Sensitive to
Some Cues to Facial Recognition. Child Psychiatry and Human
Development, 41(1), 1-14. Retrieved March 21, 2010, from ProQuest Health and
Medical Complete. (Document ID: 1926277891).
Hergenhahn, B. R. & Olson, M. (2005) An introduction to theories of learning
(7th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Ledley, D.R. & Heimberg, R.G. (2006). Cognitive vulnerability to social anxiety.
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(7), 755-778.
Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Research Library. (Document ID: 1157224361).
Mayo Clinic (2009) Social anxiety disorder (Social phobia). Retrieved March 16, 2010
from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/social-anxiety disorder/DS00595/DSECTION=symptoms
Riskind, J.H, Williams, N.L., & Joiner, T.H. (2006). The looming cognitive style: A
cognitive vulnerability for anxiety disorders. Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, 25(7), 779-801. Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1157224381).
Schlenker, B.R., & Leary, M.R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A
conceptualization model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641-669.
What is Social Anxiety Disorder?
Social anxiety is experienced when one feels the pressure to make good impressions yet is doubtful of their social abilities. Social anxiety is considered normal and adaptive when this is used constructively in job interviews, first dates, and meeting new people. It becomes maladaptive when the emotion is used primarily to avoid social situations (Schlenker & Leary, 1982). According to the Mayo Clinic (2009) social anxiety disorder, also known as social phobia, include signs and symptoms such as intense fear of being in situations that is unfamiliar, where one may feel judged, and where others may notice feelings of discomfort. Other signs are worrying about embarrassing oneself and avoiding doing things or speaking to others for fear of embarrassment (para 2). People labeled as shy and introverted may have social anxiety disorder but this is definitely not always the case. Shyness is a common individual characteristic mildly resembling the disorder. Social anxiety disorder is an extreme form of shyness.
Many individuals with social anxiety disorder report that they have been socially anxious since childhood. Temperamental shyness begins from infancy with it being characterized by face and eye contact avoidance (Brunet, Mondloch, and Schmidt, 2010). Brunet et al. (2010) conducted a study on temperamental shyness in children and found that shy children are less able to distinguish certain facial emotions in others. Perhaps this may be due to lessened sensitivity to certain facial cues leading to secondary negative effects in social behavior seen later on in life.
Bandura’s Observational Learning
Bandura’s observational learning contends that humans naturally imitate what they see others do (Hergenhan & Olson, 2005, p. 341). In applying this to children, it is natural to conclude that children learn from their parent’s behavior. Children of socially anxious parents tend to become socially anxious themselves. This is probably compounded by the pressure parents place on their children to make good impressions on others as they themselves are concerned over others opinions of themselves. One of parents many responsibilities as role models to their children is modeling and helping their children cope and navigate in the social world. Unfortunately, because of their inability to cope socially themselves, their children grow up to be socially isolated as well. These parents fail to offer their children opportunities to interact with others which prevent their children from learning that social interactions can be enjoyable and gratifying. It also communicates to their children that social situations should be feared.
Divorce and parent separation also have effects on children’s cognitive processing. It is found that children of divorce and separated parents witnessing marital and verbal aggression are factors that cause social phobias. Another factor to consider when it comes to parenting is parent-child attachment. Insecure attachment or lack of close relationships with an adult has been shown to cause shyness. As one navigates and learns social norms and etiquette, social schemas are developed.
Parent-child relationships and attachment are the earliest interpersonal relationship that a child comes to experience and as such have direct impact to personality development. Securely attached children have “attentive and responsive” parents; insecurely attached children have parents who are undependable, rejecting, and lacking in warmth (Ledley & Heimberg, 2006). It was found that children who formed secure parental attachment were more socially active, more popular, and less socially anxious. Early attachment patterns can influence the development of beliefs about social relationships. Secure-attached children come to “see others as accepting and dependable” while those that do not “see others as critical and unreliable” (Ledley & Heimberg, 2006).
Perceived Self Efficacy versus Real Self Efficacy
Bandura also believed in self regulation of behavior and how it relates to perceived
and real self efficacy. Bandura believed that human behavior is mainly self regulated. Perceived self efficacy is a person’s belief about his capabilities. It determines how one motivates oneself, think, feel, and behave. It develops from personal accomplishments and failures. It also arises from seeing others who are like oneself fail and succeed. High self efficacy means internal locus of control. Because of this they tend to try, accomplish, and persist more. Individuals with low self efficacy have external locus of control which makes them fearful. Individuals tend to experience fear in events over which they have no control and therefore are uncertain of (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005, p. 350).
Individuals with social phobias have a distorted image of how they are perceived socially. Because of their avoidance to face and eye contact they tend to miss certain social cues. Attention is focused inward unto themselves and on how they believe they are coming across to others. For individuals who are socially anxious, it is difficult to place their focus and attention to the social situation at hand. Rather, focus is placed on how they feel they are coming across and what is going on internally.
Model of Looming Vulnerability
Looming Vulnerability models depicts a cognitive style that evaluates and overestimates threats represented in environment. This model is based on the assumption that all organisms must be able to distinguish between increasing or decreasing threats in order to survive. For the well adjusted, perception is an accurate appraisal of a given situation, for the maladjusted it is not. The looming vulnerability cognitive style then relates to how one experiences an exaggerated state of danger or rising risk of threat. According to Riskind, Williams, and Joiner (2006), the looming cognitive style “functions as a danger schema that biases information processing, activates worry, and other defensive or compensatory behavior.
Numerous studies suggest that attention, judgment, and interpretation biases exist in those with social anxiety disorder. Studies involving Stroop and Dot-Probe tests investigate these biases and how the role the play in the development and maintenance of this form of anxiety. In a Stroop test participants are shown words written in various ink colors. Participants are then asked to say the ink color. Individuals with the disorder were slow to respond indicating that they were preoccupied with the meaning of the word rather than attending to the color. In the dot test, participants were showed either words or faces where one of which was neutral in emotion and the other containing emotional valence (such as socially threatening words, angry faces). A dot then replaced one of the words/faces. Socially anxious individuals were found to respond more quickly when the dot was placed in the emotionally charged word/face and reacted slower for the neutral word/face. Both the Stroop and the dot test studies demonstrate attention biases. That is, individuals with social anxiety disorder have a tendency to attend to stimulus that they find threatening (Ledley & Heimber, 2006).
Judgment and interpretation biases also exist for the social phobic. They also are likely to think that other people interpret physical symptoms they are showing such as blushing, shaking, or sweating as signs of anxiety problems or other psychiatric disorder (Ledley & Heimber, 2006). Because of how their information processing works, they fail to consider that others might be seeing these physical symptoms as merely being hot, cold, or tired. When recalling social situations, those with social anxiety disorders interpret ambiguous situations negatively although they are positive interpretations can be applicable. They are also predisposed to judge themselves negatively than they are actually judged and would judge others in similar situations. Cognitive processes of the socially phobic see social events as a threat because to them it is a means to potential of public embarrassment, criticism, and disapproval. They, in short, will generate threatening circumstances in their mind of rapidly intensifying danger of social rejection.
Life space and Law of Pragnanz
Gestalt psychology works mainly inside the frame of the cognitive paradigm. Gestalt theorist contends that humans (and animals for that matter) think in terms of wholes. That is, stimuli are configured on what they mean as a whole unit. Kurt Lewis, a gestalt psychologist, came up with the concept of life space to explain human motivation and behavior. Life space, according to Lewis, is the sum of all psychological facts. Psychological facts pertain to anything and everything an individual is aware of at any given point in time. It is its whole that then determines behavior. Unfortunately, the psychological facts the socially anxious deals with are negative beliefs full of distortions and biases in the processing of social information.
Another concept coming from Gestalt paradigm is Koffka’s Law of Pragnanz. It basically answers the question, “How does the mind organize sensory information and make it meaningful?”(Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005, p.270). It contends that thoughts are already pre-organized before it is even experienced. That is, external stimuli are actively transformed by the brain and it is this transformed information of which one becomes conscious of. Our conscious experiences therefore of events are a result of the brains interpretation of external stimuli.
Socially anxious individuals have an avoidance tendency to divert attention away from faces. On doing so, they miss out on important cues to make conversation go along smoothly. Eye contact is also avoided which can make them seem that they are lacking in social skills, are disinterested, or are uncomfortable. Interestingly, they will tend to seek out negative cues from people with whom they are interacting with. These cues include yawning, the person discontinuing the conversation, and the person gazing around room. Perhaps they choose to look for negative cues as this confirms their perceptions of self simply because this is the information and situation that they are most used to and comfortable with.
It is important to recognize if one’s cognitive style causes anxiety in social situations as awareness and knowledge can serve as a means of prevention and intervention not only for the adult affected but for subsequent generations as well.
References
Brunet, P., Mondloch, C., & Schmidt, L... (2010). Shy Children are Less Sensitive to
Some Cues to Facial Recognition. Child Psychiatry and Human
Development, 41(1), 1-14. Retrieved March 21, 2010, from ProQuest Health and
Medical Complete. (Document ID: 1926277891).
Hergenhahn, B. R. & Olson, M. (2005) An introduction to theories of learning
(7th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Ledley, D.R. & Heimberg, R.G. (2006). Cognitive vulnerability to social anxiety.
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(7), 755-778.
Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Research Library. (Document ID: 1157224361).
Mayo Clinic (2009) Social anxiety disorder (Social phobia). Retrieved March 16, 2010
from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/social-anxiety disorder/DS00595/DSECTION=symptoms
Riskind, J.H, Williams, N.L., & Joiner, T.H. (2006). The looming cognitive style: A
cognitive vulnerability for anxiety disorders. Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, 25(7), 779-801. Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1157224381).
Schlenker, B.R., & Leary, M.R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A
conceptualization model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641-669.
Thursday, February 11, 2010
Industrial Psychology: Managers and Leaders
When I worked as an Operation Analyst for JPMorgan I often would work with a Regional Manager on which state the machine (usually an ATM) was located. There was one specific manager who was obviously knowledgeable about ATMs, and from what I could tell, was a very hardworking man. If one of his ATMs broke down, I would get it running as fast as possible. I worked hard for him because I respected his leadership, sincerity, and enthusiasm. He always took the time to explain with logic and sound reasoning. I could also see that he was working alongside of me and not simply demanding I do this or that. He led by example and logic which earned my highest respect. To me, this is strong leadership.
In all my years in the workforce, I have encountered many managers and truthfully, a very few leaders. The understanding gained from learning industrial psychology and the impressions I have gathered from personal experiences have lead to me to believe that management is a position anyone can hold. It is a title given to someone with the belief that this person can “manage” (and hopefully lead). It is simply a matter of “hit and miss” whether or not that person has leadership qualities. Being a manager involves: “planning, organizing, controlling, and leading” this basically can be interpreted as “administrative work (Dubrin, 2004).Leadership is much more than that. It involves the right personality and qualities that have been honed and developed that can “inspire(s) and energize(s) people and bring(s) about change” (Dubrin, 2004). Among those personalities and qualities are passion and enthusiasm, self-confidence, insight, courage, and sense of humor. Leaders also possess distinct skills and behaviors among them are: direction setting, trustworthiness, high standards, accessibility, and supportiveness.
I personally think that this distinction needs to be recognized primarily by those who are responsible for hiring as well as promoting individuals within the company. In order for a company/business to really thrive, it needs leaders. If one cannot recognize and distinguish the leaders from the non-leaders, then one is basically staffing a company to achieve mediocre success with a higher probability of failure.
Reference
DuBrin, A.J. (2004). Applying Psychology: Individual and organizational effectiveness (6th ed.) New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
In all my years in the workforce, I have encountered many managers and truthfully, a very few leaders. The understanding gained from learning industrial psychology and the impressions I have gathered from personal experiences have lead to me to believe that management is a position anyone can hold. It is a title given to someone with the belief that this person can “manage” (and hopefully lead). It is simply a matter of “hit and miss” whether or not that person has leadership qualities. Being a manager involves: “planning, organizing, controlling, and leading” this basically can be interpreted as “administrative work (Dubrin, 2004).Leadership is much more than that. It involves the right personality and qualities that have been honed and developed that can “inspire(s) and energize(s) people and bring(s) about change” (Dubrin, 2004). Among those personalities and qualities are passion and enthusiasm, self-confidence, insight, courage, and sense of humor. Leaders also possess distinct skills and behaviors among them are: direction setting, trustworthiness, high standards, accessibility, and supportiveness.
I personally think that this distinction needs to be recognized primarily by those who are responsible for hiring as well as promoting individuals within the company. In order for a company/business to really thrive, it needs leaders. If one cannot recognize and distinguish the leaders from the non-leaders, then one is basically staffing a company to achieve mediocre success with a higher probability of failure.
Reference
DuBrin, A.J. (2004). Applying Psychology: Individual and organizational effectiveness (6th ed.) New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
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