Monday, August 6, 2012
Medical Hypnosis and Physiology
Source: Tracework by Yapko, 2005.
Traditional medicine has long recognized the "placebo effect". In some instances, a patient's positive belief that he or she is getting an active drug when she is really getting no drug at all, only a sugar pill resembling a drug, will generate the same level of therapeutic effect as if the patient has been given an active drug. Conversely, a negative expectation can foster a "nocebo" effect, a negative therapeutic effect. A person's expectation and attitudes can obviously have profound effects on mental and physical experience. With this growing recognition of the influence of client's expectancy on both physical and psychological treatments, there is a growing use of hypnosis and hypnosis-related techniques. Psychologist Irving Kirsch, Ph.D., has evolved a specific socio-cognitive model of hypnosis, known as the response set theory, which heavily emphasizes the role of expectancy in treatment (1985, 2000). In fact, Kirsch detailed considerable evidence that much of the positive effects of hypnosis is due to positive expectations on the part of the client, and Kirsch has even come to refer to hypnosis as a "non-deceptive placebo", unlike the sugar pill clients are fooled into believing are active drugs (1994). There is a considerable body of empirical evidence attesting to the power of expectations in both psychological and medical conditions ( Harrington, 1997).
Given a foundation for appreciating how expectancy can influence physiology and behavioral responses, is hypnosis only a placebo? Certainly there is some truth in that perspective, if that's all hypnosis was, it would still be worthy of intensive study. After all, the need to engage clients in their treatment is vital to enhancing treatment effects and minimizing a sense of victimization and even depression when such reactions delay or even prevent recovery (Lynch, 1999; Yapko, 2001).
In general, hypnosis can be useful adjunct to more traditional medical treatments for several reasons, the first of which relates to the mind and body relationship and the role of the mind (attitudes and related emotions) in medical disorders. "Miracle cures" that defy current medical understanding, which have evolved out of the patient's refusal to give up, are not uncommon in literature. Pragmatically speaking, why not encourage ---or at least permit "miracles"? Why place limitations on the patient that he or she would not place on him or herself?
A second reason for making use of hypnosis in the medical context is because of its emphasis, by its very nature, on the responsibility of each person for his own health and well-being. Use of hypnosis gives people a direct experience of having control over internal experiences, whether pain or distress. Finding resources of comfort or the ability to shift perceptions of their body within themselves is a dramatic experience, and allows a new and higher level of responsibility for patient's own well being.
Specific applications of hypnosis in medical contexts are greatly varied, but can generally be described as a way of attaining a significant degree of control over physical process. One possibility is the reduction or elimination of pain without the use of medication (Chaves, 1993; Montgomery, DuHamel, & Redd, 2000). Pain management is one of the more sophisticated uses of medical hypnosis, and is applicable to the patient in both chronic and acute pain.
Hypnosis is commonly used in the treatment of anxiety and stress disorders, and is considered to be the most effective treatment ( Schoenberger, 2000). Teaching the medical patient techniques for preventing negative stress whenever possible, techniques for identifying stress well before it reaches a level where it is likely to cause debilitating symptoms, and techniques for relaxing and managing stress positively are all elements in teaching a hypertensive patient to manage his or her condition positively and responsibly.
Hypnosis in the treatment of serious diseases, as an adjunct, not a replacement, for more traditional approaches, has demonstrated the necessity of addressing the emotional needs while using the mental resources of the patient as a part of the treatment....Hypnosis doesn't replace other treatments, it adds to them.
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Monday, January 16, 2012
My Take on Personality Development
Part of human personality is predisposed. Hereditary is an important component in personality development. This is especially true for children. Physiology structure and functioning are inherited from our parents. It plays a large role in response tendencies and dispositions. Some children are naturally shy, cautious, fearless, outgoing, musically inclined, intellectually predisposed, etc. It can then be said that there is a part of human personality that is predetermined. Yet,human nature cannot be solely held responsible for personality development. How we nurture our children and ourselves is just as significant in its contribution. Children as well as adults need human connection. We need to feel loved. We need human interaction. As such, personality development is dynamic. As we learn which behaviors are most effective in obtaining our needs, we unconsciously fine tune ourselves in order to control results. When we make cognitive connections between how people react to our words and actions biological changes occur in our brain and neural synapses. Like a rubber band that has the ability to expand and contract, everyday encounters facilitate or hinder biological change within us which directly affects personality and its development.
Since I believe that genetic make up sets up the stage for personality development, I cannot completely claim the blank slate concept. What I can say is that some individuals have a leg up on developing healthy psychological functioning more than others. Individuals who are not so genetically lucky need a more caring and facilitating environment to make up for their so called genetic deficiencies. However, I do think that the blank slate illustration is effective in portraying the role of the environment in the personality development process. If two children, one genetically disadvantaged and the other of better genetics, were placed into an equality nurturing environment one can almost conclude that the child with better genetics will come out with the healthiest psychological functioning. Yet, if the genetically advantaged child was placed in a nurture deficient environment and the other child who is genetically disadvantaged into a room full of caring and nurturing adults, ultimately it is the genetically disadvantaged child who will psychologically strive.
The role of hereditary make up is an important contributor to personality. It is the starting point of every individual. But, it is the environment that will ultimately determine how far or limited that personality can develop. An individual may initially be limited by heredity but if one exposed one's child or oneself to enriching human interactions and situations, then biological changes will occur. This will further enable more positive psychological functioning.
I do not believe that perfect healthy psychological functioning exists or can be attained. I believe that every individual experiences doubt and psychological disturbance frequently in their lifetime. Sometimes, this psychological disturbance is so severe or debilitating that it is necessary to reach out for help. This is where we, therapists, come into play. This belief ties in to my prior statement that points out the dynamic and ever changing nature of personality development. As such it goes through cycles of lows and highs. The question of how low or high is a matter of how well one has learned coping and adjusting mechanisms.
Humans are social animals. Learning how to maneuver oneself socially is the key to maximizing psychological health . Being confident in a variety of social interactions yields social approval. In a society were social approval is necessary for prosperity and maybe even survival, one feels most healthy when one is socially received and comfortable.
Human nature is a result of both physiological makeup and environmental factors. Although genetic predisposition can be considered the starting point in personality development, introduced environmental factors will further mold personality via the process of learning. Environment influence and physiological changes will consequently and continually occur and influence each other. Thus, human personality is dynamic and ever changing. It adjusts according to the events of one's life.
Maximum and minimum levels of psychological functioning is also dynamic. Thus, the lows and highs experienced are normal and to be expected. I believe the best indicator of psychological health is in how well a person is able to cope and adjust to life changes.
.
Since I believe that genetic make up sets up the stage for personality development, I cannot completely claim the blank slate concept. What I can say is that some individuals have a leg up on developing healthy psychological functioning more than others. Individuals who are not so genetically lucky need a more caring and facilitating environment to make up for their so called genetic deficiencies. However, I do think that the blank slate illustration is effective in portraying the role of the environment in the personality development process. If two children, one genetically disadvantaged and the other of better genetics, were placed into an equality nurturing environment one can almost conclude that the child with better genetics will come out with the healthiest psychological functioning. Yet, if the genetically advantaged child was placed in a nurture deficient environment and the other child who is genetically disadvantaged into a room full of caring and nurturing adults, ultimately it is the genetically disadvantaged child who will psychologically strive.
The role of hereditary make up is an important contributor to personality. It is the starting point of every individual. But, it is the environment that will ultimately determine how far or limited that personality can develop. An individual may initially be limited by heredity but if one exposed one's child or oneself to enriching human interactions and situations, then biological changes will occur. This will further enable more positive psychological functioning.
I do not believe that perfect healthy psychological functioning exists or can be attained. I believe that every individual experiences doubt and psychological disturbance frequently in their lifetime. Sometimes, this psychological disturbance is so severe or debilitating that it is necessary to reach out for help. This is where we, therapists, come into play. This belief ties in to my prior statement that points out the dynamic and ever changing nature of personality development. As such it goes through cycles of lows and highs. The question of how low or high is a matter of how well one has learned coping and adjusting mechanisms.
Humans are social animals. Learning how to maneuver oneself socially is the key to maximizing psychological health . Being confident in a variety of social interactions yields social approval. In a society were social approval is necessary for prosperity and maybe even survival, one feels most healthy when one is socially received and comfortable.
Human nature is a result of both physiological makeup and environmental factors. Although genetic predisposition can be considered the starting point in personality development, introduced environmental factors will further mold personality via the process of learning. Environment influence and physiological changes will consequently and continually occur and influence each other. Thus, human personality is dynamic and ever changing. It adjusts according to the events of one's life.
Maximum and minimum levels of psychological functioning is also dynamic. Thus, the lows and highs experienced are normal and to be expected. I believe the best indicator of psychological health is in how well a person is able to cope and adjust to life changes.
.
Friday, June 10, 2011
NARCISSISM
The term “narcissism” has been seemingly embraced by the general public and incorporated into everyday language. Usually, its use refers to those who hold a sense entitled. But narcissism in medical terms is much more than this mere description.
Narcissistic individuals have a grandiose sense of self. They hold a sense of entitlement believing that they are superior to others. Constantly motivated to establish superiority, they tend to overestimate their accomplishments and competencies (Daig, Klapp, & Fliege, 2009).Morf & Rhodewalt's (2001) dynamic self-regulatory processing model describe it as “an ongoing personality process (rather than a static condition) organized around the chronic goal of creating, maintaining, and further enhancing grandiose self views” (as cited in Thomaes, Bushman, De Castro, & Stegge, 2009, p. 1234). Social interactions are used as opportunities to obtain admiration yet, the process often backfires because people are often turned off to this type of behavior and the narcissist ends up repeating the cycle in constant pursuit of external validation to self esteem. Narcissists come off as arrogant, selfish, and self absorb in need of constant admiration and external validation.
Theories of Development
Although diagnosing minors with narcissism is discouraged, many mental health professionals agree that narcissistic tendencies are established well before adulthood (Thomaes, et al., 2009). It is important to note that while adult narcissism is well documented and researched, lack of empirical evidence exist of this in childhood and adolescents ( Thomaes, et al., 2009). In the analysis of narcissistic tendencies and its onset, experts look into normal childhood development for insight.
According to Thomaes, et al. (2009) prior to eight years of age, children do not possess the necessary cognitive skills to “consciously and intentionally reflect upon themselves” indicating that self esteem and self worth is not developed at this point (p. 1236). It is then theorized that age eight is the point where manifestations of narcissistic tendencies onsets.There are basically four reasons for this premises. First, self-reflection and self-esteem emerges at this age. Second, from this age upwards, children and adolescents become self conscious of how they are viewed by others. Third, children at this stage are particularly sensitive to two emotions closely associated with self esteem: shame and humiliation.
Lastly, children and adolescents at this age tend to engage in “impression management” behaviors to influence others opinion of them ( Thomas, et al., 2009, p. 1236). Along with theories of the onset of narcissistic behaviors are theories of why narcissism emerges. Two theories have been cited as possible explanations: temperamental factors and socializing experiences. The innate factor of temperament is passed from parent to child through genetics and is seen to influence personality. Dispositions are physiologically based with brain networks influencing internal responses and thus external ones as well. The amygdala and hypothalamus, areas of the brain responsible for emotion, facilitates in these responses when regulating neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine (Thomas, et al., 2009). Basically, what is being indicated is that individuals have predisposition in innately behaving in certain ways depending on genetic influences predetermined before birth. It is then theorized that narcissistic individuals are likely those who have inherited a generally neuro-biological sensitivity to positive stimuli which is exacerbated by external environmental conditions.
Socializing experiences contributing to this maladaptive behavior are mainly attributed to parenting. One theories content that overvaluation and overindulgence are the culprits that lead to raising children with narcissistic predispositions. This parenting instills the grandiose self views and sense of entitlement associated with narcissism. Another theory lies on parental coldness, indifference, and lack of support and empathy combined with extremely high expectations encourages “inflated, narcissistic self-views to protect themselves against feelings of rejection and worthlessness” ( Thomaes, et al., 2009, p. 1240).
Working with Narcissism
It was previously thought of that low self esteem is a significant risk factor for
aggression. In fact, recent incidents of school shootings have had the U.S Department of Education include low self esteem as one of the warning signs of destructive behavior(Thomaes, Bushman, Stegge, & Olthof, 2008). A recent study by Thomaes, et al. (2008) found the opposite as true. In a study conducted on adolescents on aggression and narcissistic behavior, it was found that children that tested high in high self views were more prone to aggressive behavior. Furthermore, threats to pride, reputation, and self-esteem, especially when involving public exposure is a good predictor of this aggression and is well supported and documented in empirical research in narcissistic adults. Shame induced aggression serves as protective function in preventing further damage to sense of self (Thomaes, et al2008).Consequently, working with a client with narcissistic tendencies can be intimidating and unnerving. An article written by Pat McDonald (2011) illustrates this point. She cites a casestudy involving a narcissistic patient named Robin who was difficult to the point of hostile in his interactions with clinic staff. He shouted at the nurses and went into a “a narcissistic rage” when he did not get what he demanded. McDonald points out how important it is understanding the motivation behind these chaotic and seemingly unpredictable behavior.Mainly, she stresses that insecurity and fear is behind the difficult behavior and that compassion and understanding goes a long way in helping a narcissistic patient. This is especially true when the patient has a physical illness. McDonald also stresses setting boundaries. Be friendly and concerned yet professional at the same time.
Conclusion
Narcissistic behaviors have seem to be prevalent in today's society as senses of
entitlement is being looked upon more favorably as ever before. In spite of this change in American mentality, mental health professionals are well aware how damaging this can be to individuals and those around him. Narcissistic dispositions has been theorized to manifest during the ages of eight years of age and onward. It is further theorized that the root of narcissistic tendencies lie in temperament and parenting style during childhood development. As mental health professionals it is important to know what characterizes this maladaptive mechanism. Individuals with narcissism tend to be aggressive when pride, self-esteem, and reputation is threatened. Understanding the underlying causes and feelings of the manifested
behavior helps us feel the compassion and understanding needed to in turn help them.
References
Daig, I., Klapp, B. F., & Fliege, H. (2009). Narcissism predicts therapy outcome in
psychosomatic patients. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31(4),
368-377. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/622254918 ?
accountid=34899
MacDonald, P. (2011). Narcissistic personality disorder: The journal for nurses in general
practice. Practice Nurse, 41(1), 16. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/855003066 accountid=34899 ?
Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., d Castro, Bram Orobio, & Stegge, H. (2009). What makes
narcissists bloom? A framework for research on the etiology and development of
narcissism. Development and Psychopathology, 21(4), 1233-1247. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/742989934?accountid=34899
Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Stegge, H., & Olthof, T. (2008). Trumping Shame by Blasts of
Noise: Narcissism, Self-Esteem, Shame, and Aggression in Young Adolescents. Child
Development, 79(6), 1792-1801. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01226.x
Narcissistic individuals have a grandiose sense of self. They hold a sense of entitlement believing that they are superior to others. Constantly motivated to establish superiority, they tend to overestimate their accomplishments and competencies (Daig, Klapp, & Fliege, 2009).Morf & Rhodewalt's (2001) dynamic self-regulatory processing model describe it as “an ongoing personality process (rather than a static condition) organized around the chronic goal of creating, maintaining, and further enhancing grandiose self views” (as cited in Thomaes, Bushman, De Castro, & Stegge, 2009, p. 1234). Social interactions are used as opportunities to obtain admiration yet, the process often backfires because people are often turned off to this type of behavior and the narcissist ends up repeating the cycle in constant pursuit of external validation to self esteem. Narcissists come off as arrogant, selfish, and self absorb in need of constant admiration and external validation.
Theories of Development
Although diagnosing minors with narcissism is discouraged, many mental health professionals agree that narcissistic tendencies are established well before adulthood (Thomaes, et al., 2009). It is important to note that while adult narcissism is well documented and researched, lack of empirical evidence exist of this in childhood and adolescents ( Thomaes, et al., 2009). In the analysis of narcissistic tendencies and its onset, experts look into normal childhood development for insight.
According to Thomaes, et al. (2009) prior to eight years of age, children do not possess the necessary cognitive skills to “consciously and intentionally reflect upon themselves” indicating that self esteem and self worth is not developed at this point (p. 1236). It is then theorized that age eight is the point where manifestations of narcissistic tendencies onsets.There are basically four reasons for this premises. First, self-reflection and self-esteem emerges at this age. Second, from this age upwards, children and adolescents become self conscious of how they are viewed by others. Third, children at this stage are particularly sensitive to two emotions closely associated with self esteem: shame and humiliation.
Lastly, children and adolescents at this age tend to engage in “impression management” behaviors to influence others opinion of them ( Thomas, et al., 2009, p. 1236). Along with theories of the onset of narcissistic behaviors are theories of why narcissism emerges. Two theories have been cited as possible explanations: temperamental factors and socializing experiences. The innate factor of temperament is passed from parent to child through genetics and is seen to influence personality. Dispositions are physiologically based with brain networks influencing internal responses and thus external ones as well. The amygdala and hypothalamus, areas of the brain responsible for emotion, facilitates in these responses when regulating neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine (Thomas, et al., 2009). Basically, what is being indicated is that individuals have predisposition in innately behaving in certain ways depending on genetic influences predetermined before birth. It is then theorized that narcissistic individuals are likely those who have inherited a generally neuro-biological sensitivity to positive stimuli which is exacerbated by external environmental conditions.
Socializing experiences contributing to this maladaptive behavior are mainly attributed to parenting. One theories content that overvaluation and overindulgence are the culprits that lead to raising children with narcissistic predispositions. This parenting instills the grandiose self views and sense of entitlement associated with narcissism. Another theory lies on parental coldness, indifference, and lack of support and empathy combined with extremely high expectations encourages “inflated, narcissistic self-views to protect themselves against feelings of rejection and worthlessness” ( Thomaes, et al., 2009, p. 1240).
Working with Narcissism
It was previously thought of that low self esteem is a significant risk factor for
aggression. In fact, recent incidents of school shootings have had the U.S Department of Education include low self esteem as one of the warning signs of destructive behavior(Thomaes, Bushman, Stegge, & Olthof, 2008). A recent study by Thomaes, et al. (2008) found the opposite as true. In a study conducted on adolescents on aggression and narcissistic behavior, it was found that children that tested high in high self views were more prone to aggressive behavior. Furthermore, threats to pride, reputation, and self-esteem, especially when involving public exposure is a good predictor of this aggression and is well supported and documented in empirical research in narcissistic adults. Shame induced aggression serves as protective function in preventing further damage to sense of self (Thomaes, et al2008).Consequently, working with a client with narcissistic tendencies can be intimidating and unnerving. An article written by Pat McDonald (2011) illustrates this point. She cites a casestudy involving a narcissistic patient named Robin who was difficult to the point of hostile in his interactions with clinic staff. He shouted at the nurses and went into a “a narcissistic rage” when he did not get what he demanded. McDonald points out how important it is understanding the motivation behind these chaotic and seemingly unpredictable behavior.Mainly, she stresses that insecurity and fear is behind the difficult behavior and that compassion and understanding goes a long way in helping a narcissistic patient. This is especially true when the patient has a physical illness. McDonald also stresses setting boundaries. Be friendly and concerned yet professional at the same time.
Conclusion
Narcissistic behaviors have seem to be prevalent in today's society as senses of
entitlement is being looked upon more favorably as ever before. In spite of this change in American mentality, mental health professionals are well aware how damaging this can be to individuals and those around him. Narcissistic dispositions has been theorized to manifest during the ages of eight years of age and onward. It is further theorized that the root of narcissistic tendencies lie in temperament and parenting style during childhood development. As mental health professionals it is important to know what characterizes this maladaptive mechanism. Individuals with narcissism tend to be aggressive when pride, self-esteem, and reputation is threatened. Understanding the underlying causes and feelings of the manifested
behavior helps us feel the compassion and understanding needed to in turn help them.
References
Daig, I., Klapp, B. F., & Fliege, H. (2009). Narcissism predicts therapy outcome in
psychosomatic patients. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31(4),
368-377. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/622254918 ?
accountid=34899
MacDonald, P. (2011). Narcissistic personality disorder: The journal for nurses in general
practice. Practice Nurse, 41(1), 16. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/855003066 accountid=34899 ?
Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., d Castro, Bram Orobio, & Stegge, H. (2009). What makes
narcissists bloom? A framework for research on the etiology and development of
narcissism. Development and Psychopathology, 21(4), 1233-1247. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/742989934?accountid=34899
Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Stegge, H., & Olthof, T. (2008). Trumping Shame by Blasts of
Noise: Narcissism, Self-Esteem, Shame, and Aggression in Young Adolescents. Child
Development, 79(6), 1792-1801. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01226.x
Wednesday, May 4, 2011
Humor in Persuasion :)
Everyone is familiar with the sense of joy and empowerment the ability to make people smile or even laugh out loud has. Well, there is much more to humor than this. The power of humor extends farther when used for persuasive purposes. It can make goods, products, and services sell. It generates money. Studies has shown that humor when used correctly in conjunction with persuasion messages are able to change attitudes, if not behavior itself. Two articles entitled, " The effectiveness of humor in persuasion: The case of business ethics training" and " The joint impact of humor and argument strength in a print advertising context: A case for weaker arguments" by Jim Lyttle (2001) and Cline & Kellaris (1999) respectively, discusses the relation of humor as it relays to persuasion. This article seeks to explore how humor can be a beneficial and powerful with the use of these these two articles mentioned above.
Effectiveness of Humor
In understanding the effectiveness of humor in persuasion, it would be necessary to review the elaboration likelihood model. This theory explains that messages are processed either through central or peripheral means depending on the receivers level of involvement. If one is thoroughly involved in a message and is knowledgeable in its topic, then messages are processed analytically and deeply through central processing. Argument considered compelling will sway the receiver. Peripheral route processing, on the other hand, occurs when there is a lack of self motivated interest or knowledge. Here, short cuts are taken in reaching conclusions. Factors such as source expertise, likeability, attractiveness and similarity play a role in these short cuts (Seiter & Gass, 2004). It is this author's opinion, as supported by an article by Jim Lyttle (2001), that humor is a convenient tool to use to equalize the playing field as it gets audiences to automatically rely on heuristic, peripheral processing.
It is only natural that humor in itself is effective in elevating an atmosphere or as they say putting people in a good mood. When one is placed in a good mood, then one is less likely to feel argumentative. It can then be said that one will be less likely to disagree. Adding to this heuristic processing is the fact that when one finds another funny, one can automatically conclude a shared sense of humor. This may also imply a shared sense of values (Lyttle, 2001). In education in particular, humor in text books are proven to relax students increasing the effectiveness in a message. Lyttle (2001) explains humor is known to be effective particularly in advertising and education (para 3).
The Risks of Humor
Incorporating humor in persuasion messages seem like a guarantee to persuasion success, yet according to Cline & Kellaris' (1999) findings in research, humor has the ability to backfire. They explain that humor in conjunction with the message's argument strength needs to be consider in order to be effective. Specifically, weak arguments always proves to work well with humor and are proven to be more effective when paired with it. Strong arguments, one the other hand, may work well with or without humor. As humor has the ability to disrupt central processing, attention is shifted from the message to the humor itself. This forces the receiver to use peripheral processing encouraging certain short cuts to be made and concluded. . As previously mentioned, heuristic processing of humor may lead receivers to believe that types shared sense of humor and even values exists increasing likability. Cline & Kellaris' (1999) also seem to indicate that humor is bi-functional. That is, as it forces peripheral route processing, it may also may encourage central processing depending on how related the humor is to the message. This basically happens when the humor reinforces the message forcing receivers to think and understand it in a deeper level.
Furthermore, when working with humor in persuasive messages, appropriateness also needs to be considered. For example, it would be considered inappropriate and even offensive if one used humor to advertise high risk goods such as medical insurance or funeral services. If one was promoting something of least importance such as gum or candy bars, low risk convenience goods, then humor would be appropriate and fully accepted. This is because medical insurance and funeral services are serious and can significantly impact quality of life; gum and candy bars do not.
Conclusions
Advertisers and marketers have long used humor as a tool in selling products and generating profits. It increases attention, likability, attractiveness. It also elevates the receiver's mood. All these have proven to encourage message processing via peripheral / heuristic means. Yet, it also theorized that central processing may also occur when humor becomes integral to the understanding the message.
Certain risks are also associated with using humor for persuasion purposes. These namely are: ( 1.) argument strength and (2.) level of risks. It has been determined that weak arguments always benefit from humor and generally not beneficial in strong arguments. The exception, of course, occurs when the humor makes receivers think and digest the message better. Other factors also needs to be considered when using humor in persuasive messages. That is the level of appropriateness and risk. Low risks products and goods such as gum and candy become more effective with humor and high risk products and goods fair better without.
References
Seiter, J.E. & Gass, R.H. (2004). Perspectives on persuasion, social influence, and
compliance gaining. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc.
Lyttle, J. (2001). The effectiveness of humor in persuasion: The case of business ethics
training. The Journal of General Psychology, 128 (2), 206-217. Retrieved November 20,
2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 77223102).
Cline, T.W., & Kellaris, J.J. (1999). The joining impact of humor and argument strength in a
print advertising context: A case for weaker arguments. Psychology & Marketing, 16 (1),
69-87, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID:
37875581).
Effectiveness of Humor
In understanding the effectiveness of humor in persuasion, it would be necessary to review the elaboration likelihood model. This theory explains that messages are processed either through central or peripheral means depending on the receivers level of involvement. If one is thoroughly involved in a message and is knowledgeable in its topic, then messages are processed analytically and deeply through central processing. Argument considered compelling will sway the receiver. Peripheral route processing, on the other hand, occurs when there is a lack of self motivated interest or knowledge. Here, short cuts are taken in reaching conclusions. Factors such as source expertise, likeability, attractiveness and similarity play a role in these short cuts (Seiter & Gass, 2004). It is this author's opinion, as supported by an article by Jim Lyttle (2001), that humor is a convenient tool to use to equalize the playing field as it gets audiences to automatically rely on heuristic, peripheral processing.
It is only natural that humor in itself is effective in elevating an atmosphere or as they say putting people in a good mood. When one is placed in a good mood, then one is less likely to feel argumentative. It can then be said that one will be less likely to disagree. Adding to this heuristic processing is the fact that when one finds another funny, one can automatically conclude a shared sense of humor. This may also imply a shared sense of values (Lyttle, 2001). In education in particular, humor in text books are proven to relax students increasing the effectiveness in a message. Lyttle (2001) explains humor is known to be effective particularly in advertising and education (para 3).
The Risks of Humor
Incorporating humor in persuasion messages seem like a guarantee to persuasion success, yet according to Cline & Kellaris' (1999) findings in research, humor has the ability to backfire. They explain that humor in conjunction with the message's argument strength needs to be consider in order to be effective. Specifically, weak arguments always proves to work well with humor and are proven to be more effective when paired with it. Strong arguments, one the other hand, may work well with or without humor. As humor has the ability to disrupt central processing, attention is shifted from the message to the humor itself. This forces the receiver to use peripheral processing encouraging certain short cuts to be made and concluded. . As previously mentioned, heuristic processing of humor may lead receivers to believe that types shared sense of humor and even values exists increasing likability. Cline & Kellaris' (1999) also seem to indicate that humor is bi-functional. That is, as it forces peripheral route processing, it may also may encourage central processing depending on how related the humor is to the message. This basically happens when the humor reinforces the message forcing receivers to think and understand it in a deeper level.
Furthermore, when working with humor in persuasive messages, appropriateness also needs to be considered. For example, it would be considered inappropriate and even offensive if one used humor to advertise high risk goods such as medical insurance or funeral services. If one was promoting something of least importance such as gum or candy bars, low risk convenience goods, then humor would be appropriate and fully accepted. This is because medical insurance and funeral services are serious and can significantly impact quality of life; gum and candy bars do not.
Conclusions
Advertisers and marketers have long used humor as a tool in selling products and generating profits. It increases attention, likability, attractiveness. It also elevates the receiver's mood. All these have proven to encourage message processing via peripheral / heuristic means. Yet, it also theorized that central processing may also occur when humor becomes integral to the understanding the message.
Certain risks are also associated with using humor for persuasion purposes. These namely are: ( 1.) argument strength and (2.) level of risks. It has been determined that weak arguments always benefit from humor and generally not beneficial in strong arguments. The exception, of course, occurs when the humor makes receivers think and digest the message better. Other factors also needs to be considered when using humor in persuasive messages. That is the level of appropriateness and risk. Low risks products and goods such as gum and candy become more effective with humor and high risk products and goods fair better without.
References
Seiter, J.E. & Gass, R.H. (2004). Perspectives on persuasion, social influence, and
compliance gaining. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc.
Lyttle, J. (2001). The effectiveness of humor in persuasion: The case of business ethics
training. The Journal of General Psychology, 128 (2), 206-217. Retrieved November 20,
2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 77223102).
Cline, T.W., & Kellaris, J.J. (1999). The joining impact of humor and argument strength in a
print advertising context: A case for weaker arguments. Psychology & Marketing, 16 (1),
69-87, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID:
37875581).
Monday, March 14, 2011
The Ethics of Persuasion
Is there room for ethics in persuasion? There are some who hesitate to make this connection mainly because its nature is hard to define. To some, persuasion is closely association to propaganda and thus something to be distanced from (Messina, 2007). Others still insist that ethics in persuasion is indistinct in communication and in fact, an important function in persuasion (Messina, 2007). This author contents that ethics is not only essential in persuasion but possible as well.
Live is full of ethical choices. Ethical decisions are manifested through behavior. That is, behaviors not only in action but also in speech. Many times, each individuals' ethics are manifested automatically and unconsciously. It has become a habit of certain responses. Same can be said for persuasion. Like ethics, persuasion occurs naturally and without thought. Yet, the merging of the two seem to be somewhat of a controversy. The question is, do we as communicators have a responsibility to persuade ethically? And if so, why and how?
Ethics is important to all behavior, most especially to that pertaining to persuasion. This is because persuasion can be a powerful force that shifts attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior ( Seiter & Gass, 2004, p. 14). And as such has a great impact to any community. If one were to sucessfully persuade youths towards violence, for instance, this would make any community an unsafe place. It has the potential to affect and influence many lives. Persuasion is no doubt powerful when effective and thus the persuer holds a huge responsibility to act ethically.
There are many ethical theories on human behavior but only few are said that can be related to the ethics of persuasion. In Messina's article, “ Public relations, the public interest and persuasion: An ethical approach”, she mentions how the Kantian philosophy has been used to a guide to ethical persuasion. Yet, this viewpoint has been deemed lacking as a model to go by on. According to the Kant, humans worth comes from their ability to apply reason and as such reason should be the factor to human's decision making process. Ethical persuasion then should allow individuals the ability to think for themselves based on solid facts to allow voluntary informed rational judgements to the contents of a message. Distorted, false, and fabricated information, on the other hand, rob people of making informed and rational judgements which makes the persuasion unethical. Furthermore, Kant contends that people should be not be treated as merely a means to an ends but as ends in themselves (Messina, 2007). That is, they should not be coersed into a certain line of thinking merely to achieve the results one was looking for.
Yet, for all its seemingly sound application as it pertained to persuasion,the Kantian philosophy is inadequate. This was mainly because the Kantian philosophy is categorial in nature. For instance, it believes that lying is always wrong
regardless of circumstances. As Messina (2007) illustrates, it would be hard to justify this line of thinking if one was lying to protect the lives of others such of that of Jews in the time of the holocaust. She then contends that an absolute approach to the ethics of persuasion needs to reconsidered and offers the rule utilitarian perspective to be considered.
The rule utilitarian mainly uses reason as well as a guide in its decision process. But unlike the Kantian perspective, rule utilitarians, are not absolutionists. What it preaches is in the greater good for the greatest people. Its decision making process does not lie in what is necessarily considered right or wrong but what would bring the greatest happiness. In this, they weigh the “sum” of happiness versus that unhappiness ( Waller, 2005, p.49). However, even this perspective falls short in its uses in ethical persuasion. For one, how will happiness be measured? This poses difficulties in it ethical calculations. In the end, Messina (2007) resigns herself to concluding that the best approach to ethical persuasion is a combination of the two. Reason should be used in the search of ethics in persuasion yet greater good must also be weighed right in. Furthermore, it should be noted that exceptions has to be willed to be applicable universally.
Ethics have a significant impact on persuasion. A non-ethical persuader may withhold
information pertinent to making informed decisions. An ethical persuader, on the other hand, gives his audience a fair shot of analyzing and processing the message to his own satisfaction. As persuasion has the ability to change attitutes, values, beliefs, and behavior, it has lasting and dire effects on any community good or bad. For instance, to successfully persuade teenagers into violence would mean an unsafe community. To persuade people into obtaining pre-screening test for certain diseases through education and correct information means a healthy population. Ethics in persuasion is important because its results are tangible and may even be long term.
Conclusion
The question we came to explore was if there is room for ethics in persuasion. This author firmly believes that there is. Furthermore, it is believed that certain perspectives and standards can be established to act as guidelines in contemplating a message's ethicality. As demonstrated, two prospective viewpoints in combination have the capabilities to serve as such, the Kantian's theory of reasoning and the rule utilitarian's concept of the consideration of the greatest good serving the greater people. Ethics is not only essential to persuasion but that it had direct and possibly lastling effects.
References
Messina, A. (2007). Public relations, the public interest and persuasion: an ethical
approach. Journal of Communication Management,11(1), 29. Retrieved November
15, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1210421591).
Seiter, J.E. & Gass, R.H. (2004). Perspectives on persuasion, social influence, and
compliance gaining. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc.
Waller, B.N. (2005). Consider ethics: theory, readings, and comtemporary issues.
New York: Pearson
Live is full of ethical choices. Ethical decisions are manifested through behavior. That is, behaviors not only in action but also in speech. Many times, each individuals' ethics are manifested automatically and unconsciously. It has become a habit of certain responses. Same can be said for persuasion. Like ethics, persuasion occurs naturally and without thought. Yet, the merging of the two seem to be somewhat of a controversy. The question is, do we as communicators have a responsibility to persuade ethically? And if so, why and how?
Ethics is important to all behavior, most especially to that pertaining to persuasion. This is because persuasion can be a powerful force that shifts attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior ( Seiter & Gass, 2004, p. 14). And as such has a great impact to any community. If one were to sucessfully persuade youths towards violence, for instance, this would make any community an unsafe place. It has the potential to affect and influence many lives. Persuasion is no doubt powerful when effective and thus the persuer holds a huge responsibility to act ethically.
There are many ethical theories on human behavior but only few are said that can be related to the ethics of persuasion. In Messina's article, “ Public relations, the public interest and persuasion: An ethical approach”, she mentions how the Kantian philosophy has been used to a guide to ethical persuasion. Yet, this viewpoint has been deemed lacking as a model to go by on. According to the Kant, humans worth comes from their ability to apply reason and as such reason should be the factor to human's decision making process. Ethical persuasion then should allow individuals the ability to think for themselves based on solid facts to allow voluntary informed rational judgements to the contents of a message. Distorted, false, and fabricated information, on the other hand, rob people of making informed and rational judgements which makes the persuasion unethical. Furthermore, Kant contends that people should be not be treated as merely a means to an ends but as ends in themselves (Messina, 2007). That is, they should not be coersed into a certain line of thinking merely to achieve the results one was looking for.
Yet, for all its seemingly sound application as it pertained to persuasion,the Kantian philosophy is inadequate. This was mainly because the Kantian philosophy is categorial in nature. For instance, it believes that lying is always wrong
regardless of circumstances. As Messina (2007) illustrates, it would be hard to justify this line of thinking if one was lying to protect the lives of others such of that of Jews in the time of the holocaust. She then contends that an absolute approach to the ethics of persuasion needs to reconsidered and offers the rule utilitarian perspective to be considered.
The rule utilitarian mainly uses reason as well as a guide in its decision process. But unlike the Kantian perspective, rule utilitarians, are not absolutionists. What it preaches is in the greater good for the greatest people. Its decision making process does not lie in what is necessarily considered right or wrong but what would bring the greatest happiness. In this, they weigh the “sum” of happiness versus that unhappiness ( Waller, 2005, p.49). However, even this perspective falls short in its uses in ethical persuasion. For one, how will happiness be measured? This poses difficulties in it ethical calculations. In the end, Messina (2007) resigns herself to concluding that the best approach to ethical persuasion is a combination of the two. Reason should be used in the search of ethics in persuasion yet greater good must also be weighed right in. Furthermore, it should be noted that exceptions has to be willed to be applicable universally.
Ethics have a significant impact on persuasion. A non-ethical persuader may withhold
information pertinent to making informed decisions. An ethical persuader, on the other hand, gives his audience a fair shot of analyzing and processing the message to his own satisfaction. As persuasion has the ability to change attitutes, values, beliefs, and behavior, it has lasting and dire effects on any community good or bad. For instance, to successfully persuade teenagers into violence would mean an unsafe community. To persuade people into obtaining pre-screening test for certain diseases through education and correct information means a healthy population. Ethics in persuasion is important because its results are tangible and may even be long term.
Conclusion
The question we came to explore was if there is room for ethics in persuasion. This author firmly believes that there is. Furthermore, it is believed that certain perspectives and standards can be established to act as guidelines in contemplating a message's ethicality. As demonstrated, two prospective viewpoints in combination have the capabilities to serve as such, the Kantian's theory of reasoning and the rule utilitarian's concept of the consideration of the greatest good serving the greater people. Ethics is not only essential to persuasion but that it had direct and possibly lastling effects.
References
Messina, A. (2007). Public relations, the public interest and persuasion: an ethical
approach. Journal of Communication Management,11(1), 29. Retrieved November
15, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1210421591).
Seiter, J.E. & Gass, R.H. (2004). Perspectives on persuasion, social influence, and
compliance gaining. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc.
Waller, B.N. (2005). Consider ethics: theory, readings, and comtemporary issues.
New York: Pearson
Friday, December 10, 2010
Doctrine of Double Effect
Monday, December 6, 2010 ---The Edwards' Family made an announcement that I found personally disturbing. The wife of the former presidential candidate has decided to cease treatment for her cancer. Instead, she has opted to rest at home with friends and family. Also mentioned, she was comfortable and experiencing no pain. At that, the doctrine of double effect immediately came to mind.
The doctrine of double effect is used to justify the case where a doctor administers drugs to relieve extreme pain fully aware that this may hasten the patients' death.
Having done some research on euthanasia, the doctrine of double effect has become particularly fascinating to me. This principle closely resembles euthanasia also otherwise known as "mercy killing" with only one single detail differentiating the two: Intent.
Intent abolishes any doctor of any wrong doing which can be considered euthanasia---- or worst, murder. Apparently, one single word can determine the difference between being kind or being "Kevorkian", of being morally wrong or of being a Samaritan.
Elizabeth Edwards, estranged wife of John Edwards and mother of four, had succumbed to breast cancer the next day---Tuesday December 7, 2010.
.
The doctrine of double effect is used to justify the case where a doctor administers drugs to relieve extreme pain fully aware that this may hasten the patients' death.
Having done some research on euthanasia, the doctrine of double effect has become particularly fascinating to me. This principle closely resembles euthanasia also otherwise known as "mercy killing" with only one single detail differentiating the two: Intent.
Intent abolishes any doctor of any wrong doing which can be considered euthanasia---- or worst, murder. Apparently, one single word can determine the difference between being kind or being "Kevorkian", of being morally wrong or of being a Samaritan.
Elizabeth Edwards, estranged wife of John Edwards and mother of four, had succumbed to breast cancer the next day---Tuesday December 7, 2010.
.
Saturday, November 27, 2010
Animal Research
PETA is one well known animal rights organization committed to protect animals. Indeed, they are so popular they have become a household name. Many celebrities have become supporters of their campaign. Even to the point of posing naked in photographs to demonstrate their repulsion to animal exploitation. Yet, animals have always been used to benefit human kind. In fact, it is one of the very reasons we have survived as a species. We consume meat for food, put on fur for warmth, and use animal strength for labor. We even extract their hormones to treat many human diseases. Is the use of animals for research and experimental purposes any different?
Animal rights organizations maintain that the use of animal in research is unnecessary, primitive, and outdated. For instance, PETA (2010) claims that products get pumped into animal’s stomachs, rubbed into their skin, and squirted into their eyes for apparently no good reason. Instead, they cite computer models and cell structures as better alternatives (para. 3). Although our survival is no longer dependent on animals for food, warmth, or labor, the use of animals in research and experimentations is something that we cannot live without. We are a species plagued with many mental, behavioral, and medical problems. It is a fact that animal research has aided in the discoveries of many treatments including: Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, manic-depressive illness, obesity, drug addictions, depression, and many more disorders (Carlson, 2005, p. 19). The fact remains that these discoveries can only be made through biological research. Complex behavior and internal processes for one cannot be studied using computer models and cell structures as they cannot reflect the on goings within the context of a whole organism (Canadian Council on Animal care, 2010). They are simply no substitute. Without the use of animal research, we are unable to make progress in understanding and treating human diseases.
Supporters of animal rights argue that the use of animal research is inhuman and cruel. This is basically a misconception. The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) is a governing body that reviews all research involving animals. Its job is to make sure that the use of animals is justified by the benefits of the study. It also makes sure that any pain and suffering that might occur are minimized (American Psychological Associated, 2010, para. 1). The IACUC inspects project and facility that uses animals, reevaluates the overall animal care and use program, and helps develop and deliver training and educational programs to the research community and the public on animal care and use (Carlson, 2005, p. 18). In addition to this, researchers are required to consider the implementation of the so called, “Three R’s” of research design. The Three Rs stand for Replacement (using non-animal technique such as computer modeling and cell cultures when possible), Reduction (reducing amount of animals) and Refinement (minimizing animal suffering and treating them humanely) (Canadian Council on Animal care, 2010).
Animal activists claim that animal research is unreliable and even dangerous. They further argue that there is a physiological difference between humans and other animals that prevents the results from being relevant to humans. However, one is only to look at the many medical discoveries that have come through animal testing to see that this is not the case. The discovery of insulin, vaccines and antibiotics, open heart surgery techniques, organ transplants, in-vitro fertilization, HIV drugs, hormone replacement therapy, organ rejection, and many other came about because of animal research (Singh, 2009). It is true that there is a difference between the physiology of animals and that of humans but if you really think about it, it is also true about one human individual to another. The fact is, the physiology of humans and animals are similar enough to yield the significant discoveries and knowledge we are all benefiting from today.
There is always going to be those who oppose animal research. Yet, history has proven its effectiveness and usefulness. All individuals have, in one form or another, benefited from its findings. The reality is animal research is important and indispensible
References
Canadian Council on Animal Care. (2010). Satisfying the replacement principle. Retrieved
May 7, 2010 from http://www.ccac.ca/en/CCAC_Programs/ETCC/Module03/04.html
Carlson, N. R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th Ed.). Boston: Pearson
education, inc.
Herzog, H. (2010). American Psychological Association: Discussing ethnical issues in
psychological research. Retrieved May 7, 2010 from
http://www.apa.org/education/k12/ethical.aspx
PETA. (2010). PETA people for the ethical treatment of animals: Animal Testing.
Retrieved May 7, 2010 from http://www.peta.org/actioncenter/testing.asp
Animal rights organizations maintain that the use of animal in research is unnecessary, primitive, and outdated. For instance, PETA (2010) claims that products get pumped into animal’s stomachs, rubbed into their skin, and squirted into their eyes for apparently no good reason. Instead, they cite computer models and cell structures as better alternatives (para. 3). Although our survival is no longer dependent on animals for food, warmth, or labor, the use of animals in research and experimentations is something that we cannot live without. We are a species plagued with many mental, behavioral, and medical problems. It is a fact that animal research has aided in the discoveries of many treatments including: Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, manic-depressive illness, obesity, drug addictions, depression, and many more disorders (Carlson, 2005, p. 19). The fact remains that these discoveries can only be made through biological research. Complex behavior and internal processes for one cannot be studied using computer models and cell structures as they cannot reflect the on goings within the context of a whole organism (Canadian Council on Animal care, 2010). They are simply no substitute. Without the use of animal research, we are unable to make progress in understanding and treating human diseases.
Supporters of animal rights argue that the use of animal research is inhuman and cruel. This is basically a misconception. The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) is a governing body that reviews all research involving animals. Its job is to make sure that the use of animals is justified by the benefits of the study. It also makes sure that any pain and suffering that might occur are minimized (American Psychological Associated, 2010, para. 1). The IACUC inspects project and facility that uses animals, reevaluates the overall animal care and use program, and helps develop and deliver training and educational programs to the research community and the public on animal care and use (Carlson, 2005, p. 18). In addition to this, researchers are required to consider the implementation of the so called, “Three R’s” of research design. The Three Rs stand for Replacement (using non-animal technique such as computer modeling and cell cultures when possible), Reduction (reducing amount of animals) and Refinement (minimizing animal suffering and treating them humanely) (Canadian Council on Animal care, 2010).
Animal activists claim that animal research is unreliable and even dangerous. They further argue that there is a physiological difference between humans and other animals that prevents the results from being relevant to humans. However, one is only to look at the many medical discoveries that have come through animal testing to see that this is not the case. The discovery of insulin, vaccines and antibiotics, open heart surgery techniques, organ transplants, in-vitro fertilization, HIV drugs, hormone replacement therapy, organ rejection, and many other came about because of animal research (Singh, 2009). It is true that there is a difference between the physiology of animals and that of humans but if you really think about it, it is also true about one human individual to another. The fact is, the physiology of humans and animals are similar enough to yield the significant discoveries and knowledge we are all benefiting from today.
There is always going to be those who oppose animal research. Yet, history has proven its effectiveness and usefulness. All individuals have, in one form or another, benefited from its findings. The reality is animal research is important and indispensible
References
Canadian Council on Animal Care. (2010). Satisfying the replacement principle. Retrieved
May 7, 2010 from http://www.ccac.ca/en/CCAC_Programs/ETCC/Module03/04.html
Carlson, N. R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th Ed.). Boston: Pearson
education, inc.
Herzog, H. (2010). American Psychological Association: Discussing ethnical issues in
psychological research. Retrieved May 7, 2010 from
http://www.apa.org/education/k12/ethical.aspx
PETA. (2010). PETA people for the ethical treatment of animals: Animal Testing.
Retrieved May 7, 2010 from http://www.peta.org/actioncenter/testing.asp
Tuesday, June 8, 2010
More on Pheromones
Pheromones in Humans: Research and Studies
Lately, many researchers are interested in discovering pheromones in humans. Many are convinced that humans also emit pheromones that govern behavior (Carlson, 2005, p. 272). One study conducted by Russell, Switz, and Thompson (1980) collected sweat from the armpits of one female donor, mixed with alcohol, and swabbed under the noses of other participants. The results showed that the rest of the female participants’ menstrual cycle gradually synchronized with the female sweat donor of which the sweat sample was taken from (Carlson, 2005, p. 273).
Another similar study conducted by McClintock (1971) discovered an occurrence similar to that of the Whitten effect found in mice. She found women with close relationships and who spend many hours together tended to have synchronized cycles. Also, it was discovered that women who spent time with men tended to have shorter cycles. Those who spent less time with the opposite sex tended to have longer cycles (Carlson, 2005, p. 273). McClintock later teamed up with another researcher by the name of Stern and elaborated on this experiment. Here, they had nine women donate sweat from their underarm pits for 8 hours a day. Twenty women then received the combination of sweat and isopropyl alcohol. This mixture was dabbed under their noses. The results found that the receiving women’s cycle either sped up or slowed down. Specifically, women who received the pheromone during pre-ovulation had shorter monthly cycles by approximately two days. The women whose ovulations were occurring during the experiment had delayed cycles as much as one day and a half. A controlled group was also utilized on this study. This control group did not receive any pheromones. They had no changes in their cycle. It was also noted in this study that nasal congestion in participants hampered the effects of the pheromone (Seppa, 1998).
Pheromone Physiology
All three experiments utilize the olfactory organ in the detection of pheromones. However, contrary to what one would assume, the primary olfactory system is not responsible for pheromone stimulus processing. Instead, processing lies in an organ called the vomeronasal organ (VNO). The vomeronasal organ is a group of sensory receptors at the base of a duct leading into the nasal passages (Carlson, 2005, 270). . This organ is sensitive to “nonvolatile compounds found in urine or other substances” (Carlson, 2005, 272). It is found in most mammals with the exception of dolphins and whales. In humans, the presence of this organ is a controversial issue. There are scientists, however, that believe that the human vemeronasal organ is located near the bottom of the septal wall that divides the nose (Woronczuk, Medwid, Neumann, and Eshelman, 1999). This theory was tested by inserting a specially designed electrode into the VNO. When inserted into the olfactory cleft and exposed to pheromones, no changes were found. Yet, when placed in the VNO, neurons were recorded to be responding. It should also be noted that hormone levels in the blood also changed. It is believed that the VNO sends information to the brain’s hypothalamus which is responsible for bodily functions such as mating. It is also possible that the VNO communicates with the limbic system---the part of the brain responsible for emotional responses (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
The presence of the vemeronasal organ in humans would explain why nasal congestion hampered the effects of pheromones in the McClintock and Stern experiment
Perhaps pheromones can be better related and illustrated through the occurrence related to hysterectomy. Many women who have undergone this surgery report lack of sexual urges following the procedure. In an article by Michael D. Lemonick (2004, February), Lemonick features a woman by the name of Roslyn Washington. Ms. Washington claims that the hysterectomy procedure left her with side effects she wasn’t prepared for. Among these were a decrease in sexual activity, lack of sexual desire, and failure to become stimulated from glances, looks, and touches from the opposite sex. When Ms. Washington opted to receive transdermal testosterone, she was once again able to feel “stimulated” (Lemonick, 2004). When the testosterone treatment was stopped, her desire began to once again decrease. This perhaps indicates that pheromones are responsible for sexual desire and is necessary to trigger sexual responses.
Evolutionary Perspective
It seems that pheromones related to sexual behavior is tied closely to attractiveness and mate selection. It has been suggested that the scent of the human body is a signal of “phenotypic and genetic quality” (Thornhill & Gangestad, 1999). According to an article by Thronhill and Gangestad (1999, March) women who were at their higher period of fertility during ovulation found that the scents of men who have greater body bilateral symmetry more attractive. On the other hand, women in low fertility phases or those who are on hormone based contraceptive do not show this preference. Other studies found that men did not prefer the scent of symmetrical women. These perhaps suggest that women have a more evolved preference to mate and reproduce with men who posses good genes.
It is proposed that symmetry equates good and healthy genes which in turn produce offspring who are not only healthy and developmentally sound but one that can survive into adulthood (Carey, 2006). Evolutionary theorists would probably tie this in with the parental investment theory. This theory suggests that women are pickier in mate selection due to the fact that their minimum investment in childbearing involves 9 months plus the physical traumatic experience of childbirth. It can be said that women value sires with good genes because they seek to minimize the number of their offspring because their investment is so much greater (Boyd & Bee, 2006, p. 90). In contrast, this theory proposes that men value availability. They are less selective on their partners because their minimum investment in parenting only required a single act of sexual intercourse. It can also be pointed out that “men seek to maximize the likelihood of the survival species by maximizing the number of their offspring” (Boyd & Bee, 2006, 90). Thus, this would explain why men did not prefer the scent of symmetrical women in the experiment conducted by Thronhill and Gangestad.
Genetic Standpoint
Researchers have been found that women preferred male odors belonging to men who were genetically different from their own. Swiss zoologist, Claus Wedekind, conducted an experiment using 49 women and 44 men with a variety of MHC genes (PBS, 2001). MHC stands for major histocompatibility locus. These are “genes code for special protein markers that are attached to the surface of cells and help the body recognize whether a cell belongs to an organism or if it is an invader such as a bacteria or virus” (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
In this experiment the male participants were asked to wear T-shirts to wear for two nights. These t-shirts were then placed in a box armed with a “smelling hole” (PBS, 2001). The female participants were then invited to sniff the boxes and rate the odors according to “intensity, pleasantness, and sexiness” (PBS, 1999). Results showed that women were attracted to the smells belonging to men who were MHC different from themselves. It then can be concluded that an individual would be attracted most to a person who is genetic immunity to disease differs most from our own thus producing stronger, healthier children (PBS, 1999).
Interestingly, in another similar study conducted by Richardson (1996), it was found that women with similar MHC genes with specific males would be reminded of her brother or father. On the other hand, dissimilar MHC genes would remind her of a past or current boyfriend (Woronczuk et al., 1999). Another interesting finding of this research is on how this had an opposite effect on women who were using birth control pills. The article proposes that the birth control pill probably “trick[s] the body into thinking its pregnant, and women on the pill often report that they prefer smells that remind them of home and relatives” (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
(Hmmm....disturbing.....).
Anyway.....
Research on human pheromones is yielding intriguing results. Furthermore, it seems that human pheromones offer promising implications and uses in bettering female health and understanding attraction. So far, the author can see a variety of benefits pheromones knowledge can bring to human kind. This includes: menstrual regulation for those with irregular periods, fertility and conception problems, genetic disease prevention, and marital/couple therapy. Indeed, with the continued study of this relatively new concept applied to humans, the possibility of its uses and benefits to human kind are endless.
References
Carey, B. (2006, Feb.). The rules of attraction in the game of love. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
from http://www.livescience.com/health/060213_attraction_rules.html.
Carlson, N.R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Lemonick, M.D. (2004, February). The chemistry of desire. Time, 163(6), 50-55. Retrieved
May 18, 2010, from CBCA Complete. (Document ID: 557070811).
PBS. (1999). Sweaty t-shirts and human mate choice. Retrieved May 29, 2010. from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/l_016_08.html
Seppa, N. (1998, March). Nailing down pheromones in humans. Science
News, 153(11), 164. Retrieved May 16, 2010, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 27464966).
Thornhill, R. & Gangestad, S.W. (1999, March). The scent of symmetry: A human sex
pheromone that signals fitness? Retrieved May 18, 2010.
Woronczuk, J., Medwid, S., Neumann, L., and Eshelman, S. (1999). Are there human
pheromones? Retrieved May 29, 2010. from
http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/smell/attraction.html
Lately, many researchers are interested in discovering pheromones in humans. Many are convinced that humans also emit pheromones that govern behavior (Carlson, 2005, p. 272). One study conducted by Russell, Switz, and Thompson (1980) collected sweat from the armpits of one female donor, mixed with alcohol, and swabbed under the noses of other participants. The results showed that the rest of the female participants’ menstrual cycle gradually synchronized with the female sweat donor of which the sweat sample was taken from (Carlson, 2005, p. 273).
Another similar study conducted by McClintock (1971) discovered an occurrence similar to that of the Whitten effect found in mice. She found women with close relationships and who spend many hours together tended to have synchronized cycles. Also, it was discovered that women who spent time with men tended to have shorter cycles. Those who spent less time with the opposite sex tended to have longer cycles (Carlson, 2005, p. 273). McClintock later teamed up with another researcher by the name of Stern and elaborated on this experiment. Here, they had nine women donate sweat from their underarm pits for 8 hours a day. Twenty women then received the combination of sweat and isopropyl alcohol. This mixture was dabbed under their noses. The results found that the receiving women’s cycle either sped up or slowed down. Specifically, women who received the pheromone during pre-ovulation had shorter monthly cycles by approximately two days. The women whose ovulations were occurring during the experiment had delayed cycles as much as one day and a half. A controlled group was also utilized on this study. This control group did not receive any pheromones. They had no changes in their cycle. It was also noted in this study that nasal congestion in participants hampered the effects of the pheromone (Seppa, 1998).
Pheromone Physiology
All three experiments utilize the olfactory organ in the detection of pheromones. However, contrary to what one would assume, the primary olfactory system is not responsible for pheromone stimulus processing. Instead, processing lies in an organ called the vomeronasal organ (VNO). The vomeronasal organ is a group of sensory receptors at the base of a duct leading into the nasal passages (Carlson, 2005, 270). . This organ is sensitive to “nonvolatile compounds found in urine or other substances” (Carlson, 2005, 272). It is found in most mammals with the exception of dolphins and whales. In humans, the presence of this organ is a controversial issue. There are scientists, however, that believe that the human vemeronasal organ is located near the bottom of the septal wall that divides the nose (Woronczuk, Medwid, Neumann, and Eshelman, 1999). This theory was tested by inserting a specially designed electrode into the VNO. When inserted into the olfactory cleft and exposed to pheromones, no changes were found. Yet, when placed in the VNO, neurons were recorded to be responding. It should also be noted that hormone levels in the blood also changed. It is believed that the VNO sends information to the brain’s hypothalamus which is responsible for bodily functions such as mating. It is also possible that the VNO communicates with the limbic system---the part of the brain responsible for emotional responses (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
The presence of the vemeronasal organ in humans would explain why nasal congestion hampered the effects of pheromones in the McClintock and Stern experiment
Perhaps pheromones can be better related and illustrated through the occurrence related to hysterectomy. Many women who have undergone this surgery report lack of sexual urges following the procedure. In an article by Michael D. Lemonick (2004, February), Lemonick features a woman by the name of Roslyn Washington. Ms. Washington claims that the hysterectomy procedure left her with side effects she wasn’t prepared for. Among these were a decrease in sexual activity, lack of sexual desire, and failure to become stimulated from glances, looks, and touches from the opposite sex. When Ms. Washington opted to receive transdermal testosterone, she was once again able to feel “stimulated” (Lemonick, 2004). When the testosterone treatment was stopped, her desire began to once again decrease. This perhaps indicates that pheromones are responsible for sexual desire and is necessary to trigger sexual responses.
Evolutionary Perspective
It seems that pheromones related to sexual behavior is tied closely to attractiveness and mate selection. It has been suggested that the scent of the human body is a signal of “phenotypic and genetic quality” (Thornhill & Gangestad, 1999). According to an article by Thronhill and Gangestad (1999, March) women who were at their higher period of fertility during ovulation found that the scents of men who have greater body bilateral symmetry more attractive. On the other hand, women in low fertility phases or those who are on hormone based contraceptive do not show this preference. Other studies found that men did not prefer the scent of symmetrical women. These perhaps suggest that women have a more evolved preference to mate and reproduce with men who posses good genes.
It is proposed that symmetry equates good and healthy genes which in turn produce offspring who are not only healthy and developmentally sound but one that can survive into adulthood (Carey, 2006). Evolutionary theorists would probably tie this in with the parental investment theory. This theory suggests that women are pickier in mate selection due to the fact that their minimum investment in childbearing involves 9 months plus the physical traumatic experience of childbirth. It can be said that women value sires with good genes because they seek to minimize the number of their offspring because their investment is so much greater (Boyd & Bee, 2006, p. 90). In contrast, this theory proposes that men value availability. They are less selective on their partners because their minimum investment in parenting only required a single act of sexual intercourse. It can also be pointed out that “men seek to maximize the likelihood of the survival species by maximizing the number of their offspring” (Boyd & Bee, 2006, 90). Thus, this would explain why men did not prefer the scent of symmetrical women in the experiment conducted by Thronhill and Gangestad.
Genetic Standpoint
Researchers have been found that women preferred male odors belonging to men who were genetically different from their own. Swiss zoologist, Claus Wedekind, conducted an experiment using 49 women and 44 men with a variety of MHC genes (PBS, 2001). MHC stands for major histocompatibility locus. These are “genes code for special protein markers that are attached to the surface of cells and help the body recognize whether a cell belongs to an organism or if it is an invader such as a bacteria or virus” (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
In this experiment the male participants were asked to wear T-shirts to wear for two nights. These t-shirts were then placed in a box armed with a “smelling hole” (PBS, 2001). The female participants were then invited to sniff the boxes and rate the odors according to “intensity, pleasantness, and sexiness” (PBS, 1999). Results showed that women were attracted to the smells belonging to men who were MHC different from themselves. It then can be concluded that an individual would be attracted most to a person who is genetic immunity to disease differs most from our own thus producing stronger, healthier children (PBS, 1999).
Interestingly, in another similar study conducted by Richardson (1996), it was found that women with similar MHC genes with specific males would be reminded of her brother or father. On the other hand, dissimilar MHC genes would remind her of a past or current boyfriend (Woronczuk et al., 1999). Another interesting finding of this research is on how this had an opposite effect on women who were using birth control pills. The article proposes that the birth control pill probably “trick[s] the body into thinking its pregnant, and women on the pill often report that they prefer smells that remind them of home and relatives” (Woronczuk et al., 1999).
(Hmmm....disturbing.....).
Anyway.....
Research on human pheromones is yielding intriguing results. Furthermore, it seems that human pheromones offer promising implications and uses in bettering female health and understanding attraction. So far, the author can see a variety of benefits pheromones knowledge can bring to human kind. This includes: menstrual regulation for those with irregular periods, fertility and conception problems, genetic disease prevention, and marital/couple therapy. Indeed, with the continued study of this relatively new concept applied to humans, the possibility of its uses and benefits to human kind are endless.
References
Carey, B. (2006, Feb.). The rules of attraction in the game of love. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
from http://www.livescience.com/health/060213_attraction_rules.html.
Carlson, N.R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Lemonick, M.D. (2004, February). The chemistry of desire. Time, 163(6), 50-55. Retrieved
May 18, 2010, from CBCA Complete. (Document ID: 557070811).
PBS. (1999). Sweaty t-shirts and human mate choice. Retrieved May 29, 2010. from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/l_016_08.html
Seppa, N. (1998, March). Nailing down pheromones in humans. Science
News, 153(11), 164. Retrieved May 16, 2010, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 27464966).
Thornhill, R. & Gangestad, S.W. (1999, March). The scent of symmetry: A human sex
pheromone that signals fitness? Retrieved May 18, 2010.
Woronczuk, J., Medwid, S., Neumann, L., and Eshelman, S. (1999). Are there human
pheromones? Retrieved May 29, 2010. from
http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/smell/attraction.html
Friday, June 4, 2010
Fear and Pheromones
Pheromones are used for communication within a species. When an organism releases pheromones, it elicits either an overt or physiological reaction in the receiving organism of the same species (Carlson, 2007, p. 271). Pheromones were originally studied in insects. For instance, it was found that when ants rub their antennas together they are exchanging pheromones to confirm each other’s species and colony identity (Seppa, 1998). Later studies extended to smaller animals such as mice ( as previously discussed in Physiology and reproduction as posted on 1/10/10. e.i Lee-Boot effect and Whitten effect).
Research and interest on human pheromones is relatively new concentrating mainly on sexuality and attraction. It was interesting to find another angle of study on this interesting subject.
Apparantly, it has been discovered that there is a pheromone for fear. An article in The Pretonia News (2008) cited a research study that investigates whether sweat can give out signals that might subconsciously be picked up by others. US researchers collected sweat from 40 novice sky divers as they fell of to the earth by taping absorbant pads to their armpits. A second group of of volunteers were asked to smell the samples while having their brain scanned. It revealed increased activity in the areas of the brain associated with fear and emotional responses---the amygdala and hypothalamus (The Pretonia News, 2008).
The potential of the fear pheromone apparantly has peaked the interest of many scientist and researchers. At this time, the City University of London with the support of The Home Office Scientific Development Branch is developing the technology to produce two sensors that can "detect the unique chemical signiture of the fear pheromone" (Zolfagharifard, 2009). These devices will be specifically designed to identify terrorist at airport security checks and high profile events.This technology is foreseen to be developed within the next two to three years (Evening Chronicle, 2009).
There have also been reports of isolating the fear pheromone for warfare purposes. An article by Randerson (2008) cites the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, otherwise known as "DARPA" as one oganizational group funding this type of study. He further speculates the possibility of its use in inducing terror in enemy troops. DARPA, of course, denies that they will further fund any more research of this field or that it plans to use fear pheromones for military purposes.
References
James Randerson. (2008, December 5). You can smell fear, say scientists. The Hindu,***[insert pages]***. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1808742081).
Ellie Zolfagharifard. (2009, October). NEWS: Sensor system sniffs out trouble. The Engineer,12. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1886558551).
Carlson, N.R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Scientists sniff out 'fear sweat' :NWS. (2008, December 8). The Pretoria News,6. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1608424461).
A DEVICE that smells human [ ... ]. (2009, November 9). Evening Chronicle,4. Retrieved June 5, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1897025011).
Research and interest on human pheromones is relatively new concentrating mainly on sexuality and attraction. It was interesting to find another angle of study on this interesting subject.
Apparantly, it has been discovered that there is a pheromone for fear. An article in The Pretonia News (2008) cited a research study that investigates whether sweat can give out signals that might subconsciously be picked up by others. US researchers collected sweat from 40 novice sky divers as they fell of to the earth by taping absorbant pads to their armpits. A second group of of volunteers were asked to smell the samples while having their brain scanned. It revealed increased activity in the areas of the brain associated with fear and emotional responses---the amygdala and hypothalamus (The Pretonia News, 2008).
The potential of the fear pheromone apparantly has peaked the interest of many scientist and researchers. At this time, the City University of London with the support of The Home Office Scientific Development Branch is developing the technology to produce two sensors that can "detect the unique chemical signiture of the fear pheromone" (Zolfagharifard, 2009). These devices will be specifically designed to identify terrorist at airport security checks and high profile events.This technology is foreseen to be developed within the next two to three years (Evening Chronicle, 2009).
There have also been reports of isolating the fear pheromone for warfare purposes. An article by Randerson (2008) cites the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, otherwise known as "DARPA" as one oganizational group funding this type of study. He further speculates the possibility of its use in inducing terror in enemy troops. DARPA, of course, denies that they will further fund any more research of this field or that it plans to use fear pheromones for military purposes.
References
James Randerson. (2008, December 5). You can smell fear, say scientists. The Hindu,***[insert pages]***. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1808742081).
Ellie Zolfagharifard. (2009, October). NEWS: Sensor system sniffs out trouble. The Engineer,12. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1886558551).
Carlson, N.R. (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Scientists sniff out 'fear sweat' :NWS. (2008, December 8). The Pretoria News,6. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1608424461).
A DEVICE that smells human [ ... ]. (2009, November 9). Evening Chronicle,4. Retrieved June 5, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1897025011).
Saturday, April 10, 2010
Alcohol, Men, and "Oh, I didn't Know...."
Here's an excerpt from an really interesting article on unlawful sex with a minor. Thought, comments, reactions. Welcome.
An article from Egan and Cordan (2009) reads:
"One 'reasonable ground' for unlawful sex with a minor is mistaken age. Alcohol consumption and make-up afe often deemed further influences in impaired perception. Two hundred and fourty persons in bars and cafes rated the attractiveness of composite faces of immature and mature females with and without additional make-up, alcohol users having their concurrent blood-alcohol level measured using a breathalyser. A non-sex preference for immature faces over sexually mature faces were found. Alcohol and make-up did not inflate attractiveness ratings in immature faces. While alcohol consumption significantly inflated attractiveness ratings for for participants viewing made-up faces, greater alcohol consumption itself did not lead to overestimation of age. Although alcohol limited the processing of maturity cues in female observers, it had no effect on the age perception of males viewing female faces, suggesting male mate preference are not easily disrupted. Participants consistently overestimated the age of sexually immature- and sexually immature-faces by an average of 3.5 years. Our study suggests that even heavy alcohol consumption does not interfere with age-perception tasks in men, so it is not of itself an excuse for apparent mistaken age in cases of unlawful sex with a minor. "
Hmmmm.......
Reference
Egan, V. & Cordan, G. (2009) Barely legal: Is attraction and estimated age of young female faces disrupted by alcohol use, make-up, and the sex of the observer? British Journal of Psychology, 100(2), 415.. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from Research Library ( Document ID: 1673439601).
An article from Egan and Cordan (2009) reads:
"One 'reasonable ground' for unlawful sex with a minor is mistaken age. Alcohol consumption and make-up afe often deemed further influences in impaired perception. Two hundred and fourty persons in bars and cafes rated the attractiveness of composite faces of immature and mature females with and without additional make-up, alcohol users having their concurrent blood-alcohol level measured using a breathalyser. A non-sex preference for immature faces over sexually mature faces were found. Alcohol and make-up did not inflate attractiveness ratings in immature faces. While alcohol consumption significantly inflated attractiveness ratings for for participants viewing made-up faces, greater alcohol consumption itself did not lead to overestimation of age. Although alcohol limited the processing of maturity cues in female observers, it had no effect on the age perception of males viewing female faces, suggesting male mate preference are not easily disrupted. Participants consistently overestimated the age of sexually immature- and sexually immature-faces by an average of 3.5 years. Our study suggests that even heavy alcohol consumption does not interfere with age-perception tasks in men, so it is not of itself an excuse for apparent mistaken age in cases of unlawful sex with a minor. "
Hmmmm.......
Reference
Egan, V. & Cordan, G. (2009) Barely legal: Is attraction and estimated age of young female faces disrupted by alcohol use, make-up, and the sex of the observer? British Journal of Psychology, 100(2), 415.. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from Research Library ( Document ID: 1673439601).
Friday, March 26, 2010
Social Anxiety Disorder
The cognitive paradigm stresses the cognitive aspect of learning. It attemps to understand behavior and learning through the understanding of thought processes. Gestalt theorists, Jean Piaget, Edward Chace Tolman, and Albert Bandura mainly operated within this school of thought. Cognitive theorists such as those mentioned, reject behaviorism on grounds that complex behavior are not merely a matter of cause and effect but of one’s ability to make logical choices as to what makes the most sense. It is undeniable that social anxiety is one disorder that involves maladaptive cognitive processing. Unfortunately individuals possessing this disorder choose to engage in maladaptive behavior that not only contributes to its development but to its maintenance as well.
What is Social Anxiety Disorder?
Social anxiety is experienced when one feels the pressure to make good impressions yet is doubtful of their social abilities. Social anxiety is considered normal and adaptive when this is used constructively in job interviews, first dates, and meeting new people. It becomes maladaptive when the emotion is used primarily to avoid social situations (Schlenker & Leary, 1982). According to the Mayo Clinic (2009) social anxiety disorder, also known as social phobia, include signs and symptoms such as intense fear of being in situations that is unfamiliar, where one may feel judged, and where others may notice feelings of discomfort. Other signs are worrying about embarrassing oneself and avoiding doing things or speaking to others for fear of embarrassment (para 2). People labeled as shy and introverted may have social anxiety disorder but this is definitely not always the case. Shyness is a common individual characteristic mildly resembling the disorder. Social anxiety disorder is an extreme form of shyness.
Many individuals with social anxiety disorder report that they have been socially anxious since childhood. Temperamental shyness begins from infancy with it being characterized by face and eye contact avoidance (Brunet, Mondloch, and Schmidt, 2010). Brunet et al. (2010) conducted a study on temperamental shyness in children and found that shy children are less able to distinguish certain facial emotions in others. Perhaps this may be due to lessened sensitivity to certain facial cues leading to secondary negative effects in social behavior seen later on in life.
Bandura’s Observational Learning
Bandura’s observational learning contends that humans naturally imitate what they see others do (Hergenhan & Olson, 2005, p. 341). In applying this to children, it is natural to conclude that children learn from their parent’s behavior. Children of socially anxious parents tend to become socially anxious themselves. This is probably compounded by the pressure parents place on their children to make good impressions on others as they themselves are concerned over others opinions of themselves. One of parents many responsibilities as role models to their children is modeling and helping their children cope and navigate in the social world. Unfortunately, because of their inability to cope socially themselves, their children grow up to be socially isolated as well. These parents fail to offer their children opportunities to interact with others which prevent their children from learning that social interactions can be enjoyable and gratifying. It also communicates to their children that social situations should be feared.
Divorce and parent separation also have effects on children’s cognitive processing. It is found that children of divorce and separated parents witnessing marital and verbal aggression are factors that cause social phobias. Another factor to consider when it comes to parenting is parent-child attachment. Insecure attachment or lack of close relationships with an adult has been shown to cause shyness. As one navigates and learns social norms and etiquette, social schemas are developed.
Parent-child relationships and attachment are the earliest interpersonal relationship that a child comes to experience and as such have direct impact to personality development. Securely attached children have “attentive and responsive” parents; insecurely attached children have parents who are undependable, rejecting, and lacking in warmth (Ledley & Heimberg, 2006). It was found that children who formed secure parental attachment were more socially active, more popular, and less socially anxious. Early attachment patterns can influence the development of beliefs about social relationships. Secure-attached children come to “see others as accepting and dependable” while those that do not “see others as critical and unreliable” (Ledley & Heimberg, 2006).
Perceived Self Efficacy versus Real Self Efficacy
Bandura also believed in self regulation of behavior and how it relates to perceived
and real self efficacy. Bandura believed that human behavior is mainly self regulated. Perceived self efficacy is a person’s belief about his capabilities. It determines how one motivates oneself, think, feel, and behave. It develops from personal accomplishments and failures. It also arises from seeing others who are like oneself fail and succeed. High self efficacy means internal locus of control. Because of this they tend to try, accomplish, and persist more. Individuals with low self efficacy have external locus of control which makes them fearful. Individuals tend to experience fear in events over which they have no control and therefore are uncertain of (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005, p. 350).
Individuals with social phobias have a distorted image of how they are perceived socially. Because of their avoidance to face and eye contact they tend to miss certain social cues. Attention is focused inward unto themselves and on how they believe they are coming across to others. For individuals who are socially anxious, it is difficult to place their focus and attention to the social situation at hand. Rather, focus is placed on how they feel they are coming across and what is going on internally.
Model of Looming Vulnerability
Looming Vulnerability models depicts a cognitive style that evaluates and overestimates threats represented in environment. This model is based on the assumption that all organisms must be able to distinguish between increasing or decreasing threats in order to survive. For the well adjusted, perception is an accurate appraisal of a given situation, for the maladjusted it is not. The looming vulnerability cognitive style then relates to how one experiences an exaggerated state of danger or rising risk of threat. According to Riskind, Williams, and Joiner (2006), the looming cognitive style “functions as a danger schema that biases information processing, activates worry, and other defensive or compensatory behavior.
Numerous studies suggest that attention, judgment, and interpretation biases exist in those with social anxiety disorder. Studies involving Stroop and Dot-Probe tests investigate these biases and how the role the play in the development and maintenance of this form of anxiety. In a Stroop test participants are shown words written in various ink colors. Participants are then asked to say the ink color. Individuals with the disorder were slow to respond indicating that they were preoccupied with the meaning of the word rather than attending to the color. In the dot test, participants were showed either words or faces where one of which was neutral in emotion and the other containing emotional valence (such as socially threatening words, angry faces). A dot then replaced one of the words/faces. Socially anxious individuals were found to respond more quickly when the dot was placed in the emotionally charged word/face and reacted slower for the neutral word/face. Both the Stroop and the dot test studies demonstrate attention biases. That is, individuals with social anxiety disorder have a tendency to attend to stimulus that they find threatening (Ledley & Heimber, 2006).
Judgment and interpretation biases also exist for the social phobic. They also are likely to think that other people interpret physical symptoms they are showing such as blushing, shaking, or sweating as signs of anxiety problems or other psychiatric disorder (Ledley & Heimber, 2006). Because of how their information processing works, they fail to consider that others might be seeing these physical symptoms as merely being hot, cold, or tired. When recalling social situations, those with social anxiety disorders interpret ambiguous situations negatively although they are positive interpretations can be applicable. They are also predisposed to judge themselves negatively than they are actually judged and would judge others in similar situations. Cognitive processes of the socially phobic see social events as a threat because to them it is a means to potential of public embarrassment, criticism, and disapproval. They, in short, will generate threatening circumstances in their mind of rapidly intensifying danger of social rejection.
Life space and Law of Pragnanz
Gestalt psychology works mainly inside the frame of the cognitive paradigm. Gestalt theorist contends that humans (and animals for that matter) think in terms of wholes. That is, stimuli are configured on what they mean as a whole unit. Kurt Lewis, a gestalt psychologist, came up with the concept of life space to explain human motivation and behavior. Life space, according to Lewis, is the sum of all psychological facts. Psychological facts pertain to anything and everything an individual is aware of at any given point in time. It is its whole that then determines behavior. Unfortunately, the psychological facts the socially anxious deals with are negative beliefs full of distortions and biases in the processing of social information.
Another concept coming from Gestalt paradigm is Koffka’s Law of Pragnanz. It basically answers the question, “How does the mind organize sensory information and make it meaningful?”(Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005, p.270). It contends that thoughts are already pre-organized before it is even experienced. That is, external stimuli are actively transformed by the brain and it is this transformed information of which one becomes conscious of. Our conscious experiences therefore of events are a result of the brains interpretation of external stimuli.
Socially anxious individuals have an avoidance tendency to divert attention away from faces. On doing so, they miss out on important cues to make conversation go along smoothly. Eye contact is also avoided which can make them seem that they are lacking in social skills, are disinterested, or are uncomfortable. Interestingly, they will tend to seek out negative cues from people with whom they are interacting with. These cues include yawning, the person discontinuing the conversation, and the person gazing around room. Perhaps they choose to look for negative cues as this confirms their perceptions of self simply because this is the information and situation that they are most used to and comfortable with.
It is important to recognize if one’s cognitive style causes anxiety in social situations as awareness and knowledge can serve as a means of prevention and intervention not only for the adult affected but for subsequent generations as well.
References
Brunet, P., Mondloch, C., & Schmidt, L... (2010). Shy Children are Less Sensitive to
Some Cues to Facial Recognition. Child Psychiatry and Human
Development, 41(1), 1-14. Retrieved March 21, 2010, from ProQuest Health and
Medical Complete. (Document ID: 1926277891).
Hergenhahn, B. R. & Olson, M. (2005) An introduction to theories of learning
(7th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Ledley, D.R. & Heimberg, R.G. (2006). Cognitive vulnerability to social anxiety.
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(7), 755-778.
Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Research Library. (Document ID: 1157224361).
Mayo Clinic (2009) Social anxiety disorder (Social phobia). Retrieved March 16, 2010
from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/social-anxiety disorder/DS00595/DSECTION=symptoms
Riskind, J.H, Williams, N.L., & Joiner, T.H. (2006). The looming cognitive style: A
cognitive vulnerability for anxiety disorders. Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, 25(7), 779-801. Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1157224381).
Schlenker, B.R., & Leary, M.R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A
conceptualization model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641-669.
What is Social Anxiety Disorder?
Social anxiety is experienced when one feels the pressure to make good impressions yet is doubtful of their social abilities. Social anxiety is considered normal and adaptive when this is used constructively in job interviews, first dates, and meeting new people. It becomes maladaptive when the emotion is used primarily to avoid social situations (Schlenker & Leary, 1982). According to the Mayo Clinic (2009) social anxiety disorder, also known as social phobia, include signs and symptoms such as intense fear of being in situations that is unfamiliar, where one may feel judged, and where others may notice feelings of discomfort. Other signs are worrying about embarrassing oneself and avoiding doing things or speaking to others for fear of embarrassment (para 2). People labeled as shy and introverted may have social anxiety disorder but this is definitely not always the case. Shyness is a common individual characteristic mildly resembling the disorder. Social anxiety disorder is an extreme form of shyness.
Many individuals with social anxiety disorder report that they have been socially anxious since childhood. Temperamental shyness begins from infancy with it being characterized by face and eye contact avoidance (Brunet, Mondloch, and Schmidt, 2010). Brunet et al. (2010) conducted a study on temperamental shyness in children and found that shy children are less able to distinguish certain facial emotions in others. Perhaps this may be due to lessened sensitivity to certain facial cues leading to secondary negative effects in social behavior seen later on in life.
Bandura’s Observational Learning
Bandura’s observational learning contends that humans naturally imitate what they see others do (Hergenhan & Olson, 2005, p. 341). In applying this to children, it is natural to conclude that children learn from their parent’s behavior. Children of socially anxious parents tend to become socially anxious themselves. This is probably compounded by the pressure parents place on their children to make good impressions on others as they themselves are concerned over others opinions of themselves. One of parents many responsibilities as role models to their children is modeling and helping their children cope and navigate in the social world. Unfortunately, because of their inability to cope socially themselves, their children grow up to be socially isolated as well. These parents fail to offer their children opportunities to interact with others which prevent their children from learning that social interactions can be enjoyable and gratifying. It also communicates to their children that social situations should be feared.
Divorce and parent separation also have effects on children’s cognitive processing. It is found that children of divorce and separated parents witnessing marital and verbal aggression are factors that cause social phobias. Another factor to consider when it comes to parenting is parent-child attachment. Insecure attachment or lack of close relationships with an adult has been shown to cause shyness. As one navigates and learns social norms and etiquette, social schemas are developed.
Parent-child relationships and attachment are the earliest interpersonal relationship that a child comes to experience and as such have direct impact to personality development. Securely attached children have “attentive and responsive” parents; insecurely attached children have parents who are undependable, rejecting, and lacking in warmth (Ledley & Heimberg, 2006). It was found that children who formed secure parental attachment were more socially active, more popular, and less socially anxious. Early attachment patterns can influence the development of beliefs about social relationships. Secure-attached children come to “see others as accepting and dependable” while those that do not “see others as critical and unreliable” (Ledley & Heimberg, 2006).
Perceived Self Efficacy versus Real Self Efficacy
Bandura also believed in self regulation of behavior and how it relates to perceived
and real self efficacy. Bandura believed that human behavior is mainly self regulated. Perceived self efficacy is a person’s belief about his capabilities. It determines how one motivates oneself, think, feel, and behave. It develops from personal accomplishments and failures. It also arises from seeing others who are like oneself fail and succeed. High self efficacy means internal locus of control. Because of this they tend to try, accomplish, and persist more. Individuals with low self efficacy have external locus of control which makes them fearful. Individuals tend to experience fear in events over which they have no control and therefore are uncertain of (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005, p. 350).
Individuals with social phobias have a distorted image of how they are perceived socially. Because of their avoidance to face and eye contact they tend to miss certain social cues. Attention is focused inward unto themselves and on how they believe they are coming across to others. For individuals who are socially anxious, it is difficult to place their focus and attention to the social situation at hand. Rather, focus is placed on how they feel they are coming across and what is going on internally.
Model of Looming Vulnerability
Looming Vulnerability models depicts a cognitive style that evaluates and overestimates threats represented in environment. This model is based on the assumption that all organisms must be able to distinguish between increasing or decreasing threats in order to survive. For the well adjusted, perception is an accurate appraisal of a given situation, for the maladjusted it is not. The looming vulnerability cognitive style then relates to how one experiences an exaggerated state of danger or rising risk of threat. According to Riskind, Williams, and Joiner (2006), the looming cognitive style “functions as a danger schema that biases information processing, activates worry, and other defensive or compensatory behavior.
Numerous studies suggest that attention, judgment, and interpretation biases exist in those with social anxiety disorder. Studies involving Stroop and Dot-Probe tests investigate these biases and how the role the play in the development and maintenance of this form of anxiety. In a Stroop test participants are shown words written in various ink colors. Participants are then asked to say the ink color. Individuals with the disorder were slow to respond indicating that they were preoccupied with the meaning of the word rather than attending to the color. In the dot test, participants were showed either words or faces where one of which was neutral in emotion and the other containing emotional valence (such as socially threatening words, angry faces). A dot then replaced one of the words/faces. Socially anxious individuals were found to respond more quickly when the dot was placed in the emotionally charged word/face and reacted slower for the neutral word/face. Both the Stroop and the dot test studies demonstrate attention biases. That is, individuals with social anxiety disorder have a tendency to attend to stimulus that they find threatening (Ledley & Heimber, 2006).
Judgment and interpretation biases also exist for the social phobic. They also are likely to think that other people interpret physical symptoms they are showing such as blushing, shaking, or sweating as signs of anxiety problems or other psychiatric disorder (Ledley & Heimber, 2006). Because of how their information processing works, they fail to consider that others might be seeing these physical symptoms as merely being hot, cold, or tired. When recalling social situations, those with social anxiety disorders interpret ambiguous situations negatively although they are positive interpretations can be applicable. They are also predisposed to judge themselves negatively than they are actually judged and would judge others in similar situations. Cognitive processes of the socially phobic see social events as a threat because to them it is a means to potential of public embarrassment, criticism, and disapproval. They, in short, will generate threatening circumstances in their mind of rapidly intensifying danger of social rejection.
Life space and Law of Pragnanz
Gestalt psychology works mainly inside the frame of the cognitive paradigm. Gestalt theorist contends that humans (and animals for that matter) think in terms of wholes. That is, stimuli are configured on what they mean as a whole unit. Kurt Lewis, a gestalt psychologist, came up with the concept of life space to explain human motivation and behavior. Life space, according to Lewis, is the sum of all psychological facts. Psychological facts pertain to anything and everything an individual is aware of at any given point in time. It is its whole that then determines behavior. Unfortunately, the psychological facts the socially anxious deals with are negative beliefs full of distortions and biases in the processing of social information.
Another concept coming from Gestalt paradigm is Koffka’s Law of Pragnanz. It basically answers the question, “How does the mind organize sensory information and make it meaningful?”(Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005, p.270). It contends that thoughts are already pre-organized before it is even experienced. That is, external stimuli are actively transformed by the brain and it is this transformed information of which one becomes conscious of. Our conscious experiences therefore of events are a result of the brains interpretation of external stimuli.
Socially anxious individuals have an avoidance tendency to divert attention away from faces. On doing so, they miss out on important cues to make conversation go along smoothly. Eye contact is also avoided which can make them seem that they are lacking in social skills, are disinterested, or are uncomfortable. Interestingly, they will tend to seek out negative cues from people with whom they are interacting with. These cues include yawning, the person discontinuing the conversation, and the person gazing around room. Perhaps they choose to look for negative cues as this confirms their perceptions of self simply because this is the information and situation that they are most used to and comfortable with.
It is important to recognize if one’s cognitive style causes anxiety in social situations as awareness and knowledge can serve as a means of prevention and intervention not only for the adult affected but for subsequent generations as well.
References
Brunet, P., Mondloch, C., & Schmidt, L... (2010). Shy Children are Less Sensitive to
Some Cues to Facial Recognition. Child Psychiatry and Human
Development, 41(1), 1-14. Retrieved March 21, 2010, from ProQuest Health and
Medical Complete. (Document ID: 1926277891).
Hergenhahn, B. R. & Olson, M. (2005) An introduction to theories of learning
(7th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Ledley, D.R. & Heimberg, R.G. (2006). Cognitive vulnerability to social anxiety.
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(7), 755-778.
Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Research Library. (Document ID: 1157224361).
Mayo Clinic (2009) Social anxiety disorder (Social phobia). Retrieved March 16, 2010
from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/social-anxiety disorder/DS00595/DSECTION=symptoms
Riskind, J.H, Williams, N.L., & Joiner, T.H. (2006). The looming cognitive style: A
cognitive vulnerability for anxiety disorders. Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, 25(7), 779-801. Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1157224381).
Schlenker, B.R., & Leary, M.R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A
conceptualization model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641-669.
Thursday, February 11, 2010
Industrial Psychology: Managers and Leaders
When I worked as an Operation Analyst for JPMorgan I often would work with a Regional Manager on which state the machine (usually an ATM) was located. There was one specific manager who was obviously knowledgeable about ATMs, and from what I could tell, was a very hardworking man. If one of his ATMs broke down, I would get it running as fast as possible. I worked hard for him because I respected his leadership, sincerity, and enthusiasm. He always took the time to explain with logic and sound reasoning. I could also see that he was working alongside of me and not simply demanding I do this or that. He led by example and logic which earned my highest respect. To me, this is strong leadership.
In all my years in the workforce, I have encountered many managers and truthfully, a very few leaders. The understanding gained from learning industrial psychology and the impressions I have gathered from personal experiences have lead to me to believe that management is a position anyone can hold. It is a title given to someone with the belief that this person can “manage” (and hopefully lead). It is simply a matter of “hit and miss” whether or not that person has leadership qualities. Being a manager involves: “planning, organizing, controlling, and leading” this basically can be interpreted as “administrative work (Dubrin, 2004).Leadership is much more than that. It involves the right personality and qualities that have been honed and developed that can “inspire(s) and energize(s) people and bring(s) about change” (Dubrin, 2004). Among those personalities and qualities are passion and enthusiasm, self-confidence, insight, courage, and sense of humor. Leaders also possess distinct skills and behaviors among them are: direction setting, trustworthiness, high standards, accessibility, and supportiveness.
I personally think that this distinction needs to be recognized primarily by those who are responsible for hiring as well as promoting individuals within the company. In order for a company/business to really thrive, it needs leaders. If one cannot recognize and distinguish the leaders from the non-leaders, then one is basically staffing a company to achieve mediocre success with a higher probability of failure.
Reference
DuBrin, A.J. (2004). Applying Psychology: Individual and organizational effectiveness (6th ed.) New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
In all my years in the workforce, I have encountered many managers and truthfully, a very few leaders. The understanding gained from learning industrial psychology and the impressions I have gathered from personal experiences have lead to me to believe that management is a position anyone can hold. It is a title given to someone with the belief that this person can “manage” (and hopefully lead). It is simply a matter of “hit and miss” whether or not that person has leadership qualities. Being a manager involves: “planning, organizing, controlling, and leading” this basically can be interpreted as “administrative work (Dubrin, 2004).Leadership is much more than that. It involves the right personality and qualities that have been honed and developed that can “inspire(s) and energize(s) people and bring(s) about change” (Dubrin, 2004). Among those personalities and qualities are passion and enthusiasm, self-confidence, insight, courage, and sense of humor. Leaders also possess distinct skills and behaviors among them are: direction setting, trustworthiness, high standards, accessibility, and supportiveness.
I personally think that this distinction needs to be recognized primarily by those who are responsible for hiring as well as promoting individuals within the company. In order for a company/business to really thrive, it needs leaders. If one cannot recognize and distinguish the leaders from the non-leaders, then one is basically staffing a company to achieve mediocre success with a higher probability of failure.
Reference
DuBrin, A.J. (2004). Applying Psychology: Individual and organizational effectiveness (6th ed.) New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Wednesday, January 20, 2010
Understanding Anorexia Nervosa using Theories
Clinicians and researchers work on a basis of theories to analyze the given information and understand how the different aspects of a person’s life combine to contribute to maladjusted behavior and ultimately to mental illness.
____________________
Anorexia Nervosa
Individuals with this condition have a distorted concept of their body image. They see themselves as overweight despite being 85% below normal weight. The irrational fear in becoming fat leads to unusual behaviors and physical manifestations. These behaviors include refusing to eat, excessive exercising, and social withdrawal. Physical symptoms include weakness, muscle aches, sleep disturbances, and amenorrhea. Many individuals with anorexia nervosa have obsessive compulsiveness and obsessive compulsive disorders (Crane, Roberts, and Treasure, 2007). Behaviors that support this are seen in how they restrict their food intake. For one, they tend to develop rituals in their choosing, preparing, and ingesting of meals. Although they do not eat the food themselves, they take great delight in preparing the meals for those around them such as spouses and children. When they do consume food rituals such as counting chews per bite and rearranging food on their plate is a constant preoccupation. Another behavior that seemingly supports this is their compulsion for excessive exercise. Individuals with anorexia tend to stick to routine in their daily life as well as in their exercise habits. The try to avoid situations where there might be pressure to eat and when they are with others, they often decline to eat. Because of this, they are inclines to isolate themselves from other people.
Statistics show that the most susceptible ages are 14 and 18 years of age with 90% of which are females (Sarason, 2005). Success rate are also not particularly encouraging. In 1991, only 29% treated resulted in good recoveries; 15% died of suicide and other complications of the disease (Ratnasuriya, Eisler, Szmukler, and Russell, 1991).
Major Theories
As mentioned earlier, clinicians and researchers typically look through the “lens” of theories in order to understand and analyze gathered information. Currently, there are six theoretical perspectives that are commonly used today. These theories are: (a.) the biological perspective, (b.) the psychodynamic perspective, (c.) the behavioral perspective, (d.) the cognitive perspective, (e.) the humanistic-existential perspective, and the (f.) the community-cultural perspective.
Biological Perspective. This perspective calls attention to the role of bodily processes. It assumes that bodily processes such as inherited defects in genes, acquired defects (such as those acquired through injuries and accidents), and hormonal and neurological imbalances can be pinpointed to explain disorders. It recognizes that the body and mind are interrelated and affect each other. In anorexia, hereditary factors specifically physiological mechanisms are suspected. Changes in biochemicals levels that play a role in the control of metabolism and eating such as norepinerprine, serotonin and opioids are seen in people with anorexia (Fava, Copeland, Schweiger, and Herzog, 1989).
Psychodynamic Perspective. The psychodynamic perspective places emphasis on the role of anxiety and inner conflict. It sees thoughts and emotions as important determinants to one’s actions and reactions. Furthermore, one has to look into deeper emotions and feelings to understand troubling behavior. It is interesting to note that while anorexics have a preoccupation with self image, the real issue lies in the lack of self worth (Mayo Clinic, 2010).
Behavioral Perspective. Here, behavior is shown as merely a product and response to environmental stimuli. That is, learning molds behavior thus personality. Behaviorist Ivan Pavlov is known for his infamous classical conditioning experiment. The experiment basically sheds light on the impact of stimuli on behavior. In manipulating external factors behavioral responses change and adjust. Mothers, for instance, may show over concern over their daughter’s weight and physical attractiveness serving as negative stimuli to a daughter’s concept of self worth and identity. Childhood sexual abuse, certain characteristics of family environment, and other early traumatic events are also possible contributors to the condition (Svirko & Hawton, 2007).
Cognitive Perspective. Cognitive perspective based theories examines internal mental processes with an emphasis with mental interpretations and problem solving. In abnormal psychology, it looks for defective thinking as the root of an abnormal behavior. Individuals with anorexia have an impaired ability to process information. The cognitive distortion obviously lies in their ability to interpret their emaciated physical appearances as they continue to think that they are overweight. When clinicians are looking at a disorder through a cognitive perspective, they often use cognitive therapy in conjunction with other treatments. Although there is much variation to different types of cognitive therapy, they normally share three basic assumptions: (a.) Cognitive activity affects behavior, (b.) Cognitive activity can be monitored, and (c.) Behavior change can be achieved through cognitive change (Sarason, 2005).
Humanistic-existential Perspective is an optimistic theoretical approach that emphasizes on individuality and how we have the freedom to make our own decisions. It is has a spiritual context to it not found in other theories. While there is not a lot of back up research to support it, many clinicians see it as an effective approach to rehabilitation. An article by Aida Warah (1993) looks at the anorexic’s compulsion to excessively exercise. It hypothesizes that “overactivity may help the anorexic person achieve a sense of existential permanence by dynamizing her static and too rational mode of being.”.(Warah, 1993).
Community-cultural perspective. This approach looks into the role of culture and community has in contributing to maladaptive behavior or disorder. Western culture and other industrialized countries, for instance, hold thinness as a desirable physical characteristic in individuals especially in women. Obesity is considered undesirable and in fact is associated with many negative stereotypes. A few of which include lazy, unintelligent, and uneducated. Western media also holds a powerful influence in the attractiveness of being thin.
Maladaptive Behavioral Patterns
A behavior is considered maladaptive when it leads the individual to experience a great deal of anxiety, stress, and unhappiness when presented with stressful situations and inner conflict. Individuals with maladaptive behavior tend to have a narrow spectrum on how to act and react. When significant changes happen in his environment, he is unable to adapt and respond appropriately sticking basically to his original way of thought and action. Long term maladaptive behaviors, especially when having an onset from childhood are considered personality disorders. Other features of personality disorders include: (a.) stability-with the behavior being fairly consistent and evident, (b.) pervasive-apparent in social, personal, and occupational areas in life, and (c.) “clinical significant maladaptions resulting in personal distress or impairment in social and occupational functioning” (Sarason, 2005).
Personality disorders falls under three major categories. The first category is odd and eccentric behaviors. Under this category characteristics are the paranoid (tense and guarded), schizoid (restricted emotional expression), and schizotypal (unsettling and peculiar thoughts, appearance, and behavior). Its clinical features include social deficits, absences of close personal relationships, and holds poor prognosis. The second category is dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviors. Under this are the histrionic (seductive behavior and instant gratification), narcissistic (Self absorbed, expecting special treatment), borderline (unable to be alone), and antisocial (exploitive, manipulative, lack of guilt). Characteristics that they share are social and interpersonal instability yet having the condition improve as they age. The last and third category is anxious or fearful behavior. They include the avoidant (avoiding unfamiliar people, places, events to avoid being embarrassed), dependent (fear of abandonment, needs to be with somebody at all cost), and the antisocial (preoccupied with details, perfectionist).
______________________
Theories provide clinicians and researchers an angle on how to understand and analyze gathered information leading to the understanding on how different aspects of a person’s life combine to contribute to maladjusted behavior and mental illness.
References
Sarason, I.G. and Sarason, B.R(2005). Abnormal Psychology: The Problem of
Maladaptive Behavior, 11th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Custom Publishing
Ratnasuriya, R. H., Eiser, I., Szmukler, G.L., and Russell, G.F.M. (1991) Anorexia
nervosa: Outcome and prognostic factors after 20 years. British Journal of
Psychiatry, 158, 495-502.
Fava, M.,Copeland, P.M., Schweiger, U., and Hersog, M.D. (1989). Neurochemical
abnormalities of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. American Journal of
Psychiatry. 146,963-971.
Mayo Clinic. Anorexia Nervosa. Retrieved January 7, 2010. From
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anorexia/DS00606
Elena Svirko, & Keith Hawton. (2007). Self-Injurious Behavior and Eating Disorders:
The Extent and Nature of the Association. Suicide & Life - Threatening
Behavior, 37(4), 409-21. Retrieved January 9, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1334726021).
Warah, Aida. (1993). Overactivity and boundary setting in anorexia nervosa: An
existential perspective. Journal of Adolescence,16(1), 93. Retrieved December 12,
2009, from Research Library.(Document ID: 7187817).
Anna M Crane, Marion E Roberts, & Janet Treasure. (2007). Are obsessive-compulsive
personality traits associated with a poor outcome in anorexia nervosa? A systematic
review of randomized controlled trials and naturalistic outcome studies. Review of
medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. International Journal
of Eating Disorders, 40(7), 581. Retrieved January 11, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1354035261).
____________________
Anorexia Nervosa
Individuals with this condition have a distorted concept of their body image. They see themselves as overweight despite being 85% below normal weight. The irrational fear in becoming fat leads to unusual behaviors and physical manifestations. These behaviors include refusing to eat, excessive exercising, and social withdrawal. Physical symptoms include weakness, muscle aches, sleep disturbances, and amenorrhea. Many individuals with anorexia nervosa have obsessive compulsiveness and obsessive compulsive disorders (Crane, Roberts, and Treasure, 2007). Behaviors that support this are seen in how they restrict their food intake. For one, they tend to develop rituals in their choosing, preparing, and ingesting of meals. Although they do not eat the food themselves, they take great delight in preparing the meals for those around them such as spouses and children. When they do consume food rituals such as counting chews per bite and rearranging food on their plate is a constant preoccupation. Another behavior that seemingly supports this is their compulsion for excessive exercise. Individuals with anorexia tend to stick to routine in their daily life as well as in their exercise habits. The try to avoid situations where there might be pressure to eat and when they are with others, they often decline to eat. Because of this, they are inclines to isolate themselves from other people.
Statistics show that the most susceptible ages are 14 and 18 years of age with 90% of which are females (Sarason, 2005). Success rate are also not particularly encouraging. In 1991, only 29% treated resulted in good recoveries; 15% died of suicide and other complications of the disease (Ratnasuriya, Eisler, Szmukler, and Russell, 1991).
Major Theories
As mentioned earlier, clinicians and researchers typically look through the “lens” of theories in order to understand and analyze gathered information. Currently, there are six theoretical perspectives that are commonly used today. These theories are: (a.) the biological perspective, (b.) the psychodynamic perspective, (c.) the behavioral perspective, (d.) the cognitive perspective, (e.) the humanistic-existential perspective, and the (f.) the community-cultural perspective.
Biological Perspective. This perspective calls attention to the role of bodily processes. It assumes that bodily processes such as inherited defects in genes, acquired defects (such as those acquired through injuries and accidents), and hormonal and neurological imbalances can be pinpointed to explain disorders. It recognizes that the body and mind are interrelated and affect each other. In anorexia, hereditary factors specifically physiological mechanisms are suspected. Changes in biochemicals levels that play a role in the control of metabolism and eating such as norepinerprine, serotonin and opioids are seen in people with anorexia (Fava, Copeland, Schweiger, and Herzog, 1989).
Psychodynamic Perspective. The psychodynamic perspective places emphasis on the role of anxiety and inner conflict. It sees thoughts and emotions as important determinants to one’s actions and reactions. Furthermore, one has to look into deeper emotions and feelings to understand troubling behavior. It is interesting to note that while anorexics have a preoccupation with self image, the real issue lies in the lack of self worth (Mayo Clinic, 2010).
Behavioral Perspective. Here, behavior is shown as merely a product and response to environmental stimuli. That is, learning molds behavior thus personality. Behaviorist Ivan Pavlov is known for his infamous classical conditioning experiment. The experiment basically sheds light on the impact of stimuli on behavior. In manipulating external factors behavioral responses change and adjust. Mothers, for instance, may show over concern over their daughter’s weight and physical attractiveness serving as negative stimuli to a daughter’s concept of self worth and identity. Childhood sexual abuse, certain characteristics of family environment, and other early traumatic events are also possible contributors to the condition (Svirko & Hawton, 2007).
Cognitive Perspective. Cognitive perspective based theories examines internal mental processes with an emphasis with mental interpretations and problem solving. In abnormal psychology, it looks for defective thinking as the root of an abnormal behavior. Individuals with anorexia have an impaired ability to process information. The cognitive distortion obviously lies in their ability to interpret their emaciated physical appearances as they continue to think that they are overweight. When clinicians are looking at a disorder through a cognitive perspective, they often use cognitive therapy in conjunction with other treatments. Although there is much variation to different types of cognitive therapy, they normally share three basic assumptions: (a.) Cognitive activity affects behavior, (b.) Cognitive activity can be monitored, and (c.) Behavior change can be achieved through cognitive change (Sarason, 2005).
Humanistic-existential Perspective is an optimistic theoretical approach that emphasizes on individuality and how we have the freedom to make our own decisions. It is has a spiritual context to it not found in other theories. While there is not a lot of back up research to support it, many clinicians see it as an effective approach to rehabilitation. An article by Aida Warah (1993) looks at the anorexic’s compulsion to excessively exercise. It hypothesizes that “overactivity may help the anorexic person achieve a sense of existential permanence by dynamizing her static and too rational mode of being.”.(Warah, 1993).
Community-cultural perspective. This approach looks into the role of culture and community has in contributing to maladaptive behavior or disorder. Western culture and other industrialized countries, for instance, hold thinness as a desirable physical characteristic in individuals especially in women. Obesity is considered undesirable and in fact is associated with many negative stereotypes. A few of which include lazy, unintelligent, and uneducated. Western media also holds a powerful influence in the attractiveness of being thin.
Maladaptive Behavioral Patterns
A behavior is considered maladaptive when it leads the individual to experience a great deal of anxiety, stress, and unhappiness when presented with stressful situations and inner conflict. Individuals with maladaptive behavior tend to have a narrow spectrum on how to act and react. When significant changes happen in his environment, he is unable to adapt and respond appropriately sticking basically to his original way of thought and action. Long term maladaptive behaviors, especially when having an onset from childhood are considered personality disorders. Other features of personality disorders include: (a.) stability-with the behavior being fairly consistent and evident, (b.) pervasive-apparent in social, personal, and occupational areas in life, and (c.) “clinical significant maladaptions resulting in personal distress or impairment in social and occupational functioning” (Sarason, 2005).
Personality disorders falls under three major categories. The first category is odd and eccentric behaviors. Under this category characteristics are the paranoid (tense and guarded), schizoid (restricted emotional expression), and schizotypal (unsettling and peculiar thoughts, appearance, and behavior). Its clinical features include social deficits, absences of close personal relationships, and holds poor prognosis. The second category is dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviors. Under this are the histrionic (seductive behavior and instant gratification), narcissistic (Self absorbed, expecting special treatment), borderline (unable to be alone), and antisocial (exploitive, manipulative, lack of guilt). Characteristics that they share are social and interpersonal instability yet having the condition improve as they age. The last and third category is anxious or fearful behavior. They include the avoidant (avoiding unfamiliar people, places, events to avoid being embarrassed), dependent (fear of abandonment, needs to be with somebody at all cost), and the antisocial (preoccupied with details, perfectionist).
______________________
Theories provide clinicians and researchers an angle on how to understand and analyze gathered information leading to the understanding on how different aspects of a person’s life combine to contribute to maladjusted behavior and mental illness.
References
Sarason, I.G. and Sarason, B.R(2005). Abnormal Psychology: The Problem of
Maladaptive Behavior, 11th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Custom Publishing
Ratnasuriya, R. H., Eiser, I., Szmukler, G.L., and Russell, G.F.M. (1991) Anorexia
nervosa: Outcome and prognostic factors after 20 years. British Journal of
Psychiatry, 158, 495-502.
Fava, M.,Copeland, P.M., Schweiger, U., and Hersog, M.D. (1989). Neurochemical
abnormalities of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. American Journal of
Psychiatry. 146,963-971.
Mayo Clinic. Anorexia Nervosa. Retrieved January 7, 2010. From
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anorexia/DS00606
Elena Svirko, & Keith Hawton. (2007). Self-Injurious Behavior and Eating Disorders:
The Extent and Nature of the Association. Suicide & Life - Threatening
Behavior, 37(4), 409-21. Retrieved January 9, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1334726021).
Warah, Aida. (1993). Overactivity and boundary setting in anorexia nervosa: An
existential perspective. Journal of Adolescence,16(1), 93. Retrieved December 12,
2009, from Research Library.(Document ID: 7187817).
Anna M Crane, Marion E Roberts, & Janet Treasure. (2007). Are obsessive-compulsive
personality traits associated with a poor outcome in anorexia nervosa? A systematic
review of randomized controlled trials and naturalistic outcome studies. Review of
medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. International Journal
of Eating Disorders, 40(7), 581. Retrieved January 11, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1354035261).
Monday, January 18, 2010
Irresponsible behavior and the Brain
The orbitofrontal cortex is one of the areas of the brain that help process emotional input. It serves as an interface between brain functions that engages in automatic and controlled responses. It is also recognized for the important role it plays in making moral judgments. According to Carlson (2005) damaged to this area would therefore cause a person to be unable to “make or carry out plans…his actions appear(ing) to be capricious and whimsical”. Carlson also points out that while damage results in the inability to act in a responsible and mature fashion, he also notes that the damage would not hinder him from accurately assessing situations from a purely theoretical perspective. He illustrates this point by citing a patient with bilateral damage (damage to both sides of the brain) to the area who displayed excellent social judgment. When questioned about hypothetical situations involving moral and ethical dilemmas, the patient answered sensibly and with justifiable logic. Yet, in his own life, he was unable to tell the difference between trivial matters and important ones. For instance, he would spend many hours deciding where to eat dinner but was unable to make judgments involving occupation and family (such as squandering the family life savings and making very bad financial decisions).
Learning about the orbitofrontal cortex and how it relates to behavior brought on strong emotional responses in me. It is outrageous to think that the undevelopment, damage, or absence thereof of this region can serve as an excuse for irresponsible and insensitive behavior. Should individuals with behaviors described above be excused because maybe they have something wrong with their orbit frontal cortexes? What if that person was a father or a spouse? How should a wife cope with that knowing that the behavior is practically beyond one’s control? How should society be asked to deal with it?
I guess the best thing to do is to get professional help to gain ways to cope with this unfortunate affliction/brain damage. I’m sure there are ways in which relationships can still be worked out with proper techniques and a great deal of patience and understanding. What this topic particularly hit home to me is that irresponsible behavior may not be a matter of just will and wants. It’s also about what a person is capable physiology-wise/brain-wise of.
References
Carlson, N. R. (2008). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (7th Ed.) Boston: Pearson Allyn-Bacon
Learning about the orbitofrontal cortex and how it relates to behavior brought on strong emotional responses in me. It is outrageous to think that the undevelopment, damage, or absence thereof of this region can serve as an excuse for irresponsible and insensitive behavior. Should individuals with behaviors described above be excused because maybe they have something wrong with their orbit frontal cortexes? What if that person was a father or a spouse? How should a wife cope with that knowing that the behavior is practically beyond one’s control? How should society be asked to deal with it?
I guess the best thing to do is to get professional help to gain ways to cope with this unfortunate affliction/brain damage. I’m sure there are ways in which relationships can still be worked out with proper techniques and a great deal of patience and understanding. What this topic particularly hit home to me is that irresponsible behavior may not be a matter of just will and wants. It’s also about what a person is capable physiology-wise/brain-wise of.
References
Carlson, N. R. (2008). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (7th Ed.) Boston: Pearson Allyn-Bacon
Sunday, January 10, 2010
Physiology and Reproduction
Reproductive Behavior. There are a couple of things I found interesting about reproductive behavior and it’s physiology. One of them is the effects of pheromones. Pheromones are chemicals released by one animal that affects another. Four occurrences observed in mice are associated with the release of certain pheromones. They are: (a.) the Lee-Boot effect, (b.) the Whitten effect, (c.)Vandenberg effect, and (d.) the Bruce effect. The Lee-Boot effect occurs when estrous cycles of a group of females ceases in the absence of a male. Yet, estrous cycles reappear when exposed to male urine with the cycles being synchronized (the Whitten effect). The Vandenberg effect refers to the early onset of puberty of a female caused by the odor of a male. Lastly, the Bruce effect happens when a pregnant female aborts--triggered by the odor of urine from another (assumingly with better genetic make up) male.
What makes pheromones very interesting is how it seems to promote the survival of the species. The Bruce effect in particular reiterates the survival of the fittest. Interestingly as well is the fact that female humans also experiences occurrences similar to the Whitten effect and the Lee-Boot effect. It would explain how women who have very close relationships seem to get pregnant at the same time. Probably this is because they ovulate at the same time as well.
Studies on pheromones usually involve animal research. The influence of pheromones is observed in species such as mice, bees, and beetles. This knowledge can be used to the benefit of insect and pests control and even elimination. When I grew up in the Philippines, insecticides were used to protect the crops. If someone could come up with a way to use this knowledge, this could be a safer and more eco-friendly alternative to harmful chemicals and insecticides. Also in the Philippines there is a certain “black magic” that we call “gayuma”. Funny thing is, there might be “magic” in it after all. Gayuma, from what I recall is a love potion made from a person’s sweat. The person who is trying to attract the attentions of a particular person (romantically) is to exercise intensively, collect his/her sweat, and mix it in a strong drink (such as the local alcohol) and give it to the person they are trying to attract. (This is done over a period of a few weeks.) I used to disregard this as superstition but upon learning about pheromones, I have to say there might be something to it. I am surprised that perfume manufacturers haven’t thought about putting urine, sweat, and other body by products into their merchandise (Or have they? Good thing I am not particularly fond of perfumes). Well, at the very least, this explains why wives like to smell their husband’s armpits. Wouldn’t it be funny if therapists start recommending couples to smell each other’s armpits twice a day? You never know, it might actually work. If nothing else, there’d be a lot of laughing involved :)
I think that the so called superstitions, myths, and etc. needs to be looked into more closely and tested scientifically. There are so many things that may open our eyes and may give us solutions to issues we have today.
Reference
Carlson, N. R. (2008). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (7th Ed.) Boston:
Pearson Allyn-Bacon
What makes pheromones very interesting is how it seems to promote the survival of the species. The Bruce effect in particular reiterates the survival of the fittest. Interestingly as well is the fact that female humans also experiences occurrences similar to the Whitten effect and the Lee-Boot effect. It would explain how women who have very close relationships seem to get pregnant at the same time. Probably this is because they ovulate at the same time as well.
Studies on pheromones usually involve animal research. The influence of pheromones is observed in species such as mice, bees, and beetles. This knowledge can be used to the benefit of insect and pests control and even elimination. When I grew up in the Philippines, insecticides were used to protect the crops. If someone could come up with a way to use this knowledge, this could be a safer and more eco-friendly alternative to harmful chemicals and insecticides. Also in the Philippines there is a certain “black magic” that we call “gayuma”. Funny thing is, there might be “magic” in it after all. Gayuma, from what I recall is a love potion made from a person’s sweat. The person who is trying to attract the attentions of a particular person (romantically) is to exercise intensively, collect his/her sweat, and mix it in a strong drink (such as the local alcohol) and give it to the person they are trying to attract. (This is done over a period of a few weeks.) I used to disregard this as superstition but upon learning about pheromones, I have to say there might be something to it. I am surprised that perfume manufacturers haven’t thought about putting urine, sweat, and other body by products into their merchandise (Or have they? Good thing I am not particularly fond of perfumes). Well, at the very least, this explains why wives like to smell their husband’s armpits. Wouldn’t it be funny if therapists start recommending couples to smell each other’s armpits twice a day? You never know, it might actually work. If nothing else, there’d be a lot of laughing involved :)
I think that the so called superstitions, myths, and etc. needs to be looked into more closely and tested scientifically. There are so many things that may open our eyes and may give us solutions to issues we have today.
Reference
Carlson, N. R. (2008). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (7th Ed.) Boston:
Pearson Allyn-Bacon
Tuesday, January 5, 2010
Child obesity and depression
Can the increasing condition of obesity in children and adolescence negatively affected their social relations? If so, would it be safe to assume that the stigma of being obese would lead to overweight children having a greater tendency towards depression? It is my intent to describe this growing epidemic as well as to understand the relationship between obesity, social interactions, and depression in children. It is my theory that obesity leads to stigmatized children which in turn increase the predisposition towards depression.
Obesity among children is on the rise. It threatens children’s physical and emotional wellbeing. The Centers for disease control and prevention (2009) show that over the past 20 years, obesity has more than doubled in children age six to 11 from 6.5% in 1980 to 17% in 2006. In children ages 12 to19 this number has more than tripled. This increase is from 5% to 17.6%. Calculations of child obesity were done by figuring body mass index (also known as BMI) which measures weight in relation to height. A child is considered overweight when belonging at or above the 85th percentile and obese when BMI is at or above 95th percentile for children at the same age and height.
What has caused this alarming increase of this epidemic in children? Among the usual reasons as to weight gain include lack of physical activity and poor genetics. Yet, another substantial concern is today’s society is that of deteriorating eating habits. According to the National Health Review (2008) family income affects a child’s inclination to gain weight. Also, low income families tend to eat more filling starchy foods such as rice, bread, cakes (Echwald, 1999). Families with higher income tend to eat more vegetables.According to recent meta-analysis, individuals of low socioeconomic statuses are prone to depression (Johnston, Johnson, McLeod, and Johnston, 2004). Other culprits to consider are the readily available food choices out there that are high in sugar, salt, and fat contents. These foods are accessible everywhere including vending machines, restaurants, and grocery stores. Many unhealthy food products today are also heavily marketed to target young and impressionable minds. With unhealthy family choices and negative food industry influences affecting children’s eating habits, unhealthy eating is common and has become natural to children (Nutrition Health Review, 2008). These conditions, aggravated by the fact that parents often use food as reward, all contribute to this increasing problem of child obesity.
Obesity is not only detrimental to our children’s physical well being; it is also detrimental to their emotional wellbeing. There is a stigma in being obese. This is especially true in industrialized countries where thinness is considered beautiful and the opposite is not (Myers, 2008). Another study found an association between obesity and self esteem in children as well as adolescence (Cited in Lowry et al., 2007). A study conducted in Australia by Hesketh and colleagues (2004) confirmed this. They conducted a three year longitudinal study of children and found that seven year olds with higher BMIs modestly predicted lower self esteem than other peers their age. In children age 11, higher BMIs became a stronger predictor of low self esteem.Yet, self esteem in obese preschool children remain unaffected (Strauss and Pollack, 2003).It is not surprising that overweight female adolescents are more impacted emotionally than their male counterparts. Overweight females often expect to be rejected and go into withdrawal (Monello and Mayer, 1963). Overall, they have found, both sexes experience more occurrence of depressive symptoms than their normal weight peers.
Depression is a mood disorder that goes beyond temporary feelings of sadness ( Papalia, Olds. and Feldman, 2008). Depression affects self esteem and one’s sense of self efficacy. Some of the characteristics of depression are lack of concentration, fatigue, indifference to physical activity, and feelings of worthlessness and friendlessness. Dr. William L. Coleman, a professor of pediatrics at the Center for Development and Learning at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, states that there has been an increase of 15 percent in depression among school-age children over the last five years (Cited in Colino, 2004).
There are other factors that are influencing this negative outlook when it comes to obesity in children. For one there are Ethnic influences involved. For example, 13 to 14 year old White and Hispanic females who are overweight convey lower self esteem issues than their normal weight counterpart. However, 13 to 14 year old African American females regardless of weight did not show a difference in self esteem. This indicates that American Africans may be more accepting of larger body sizes than Whites or Hispanic whose negative view regarding larger set weights explain for the declined self esteem and tendency towards depression of their young children (Lowry et al., 2007).
A link has been found on low self esteem in relation to peer victimization and the lack of social support (Sweeting, Wright, and Minnis, 2005). Peer victimization focuses on appearances and body weight. Obese children are more prone to be negatively affected by negative peer comments and remarks. Overweight kids are seen by other kids as the least desirable of friends. It may be for also this reason why obese children may be prone to be isolated socially and be on the sidelines of social networks. Peer victimization is also one of the causes of depression in obese children and adolescents. It is easy to see how peer victimization on obese children can lead to both self esteem issues as well as depression. Alarmingly, there is a positive correlation between depressive symptoms at age six to nine years of age and being overweight later on in life. (Liem, Sauer, Oldehinkel, and Stolk, 2008).
A study conducted by Strauss and Pollack (2004) investigated the social networks of overweight and normal weight adolescents. Although overweight adolescent listed the same number of friends as their normal weight counterparts, the results of the study does not show in support of this.
In the study mentioned above, an impressively large sample of 90,118 was taken from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. It included 13 to 18 year old kids who were both of normal and overweight weights. In the study, overweight was defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 95> percentile for age and sex. The method used was of friendship nominations each adolescent received from others. Each participant was allowed 5 best female and 5 best male friends. In and out degree measurements were made. This means that it measured the number of nominations each individual received from other students and the number of nominations that participant made to identify as friends. It also took into consideration extended networks such as friends and friends of friends. Calculations of connections and degree of relationships were then made by matrix programs.
Results show that overweight participants were significantly less popular than normal weight participants with a significant level of p<.001. Overweight participants are less likely to receive 5 friendship nominations and less likely to receive 2 or best friend nominations. On the other hand, those who were nominated by overweight participants as friends were less likely to return the nominations. Results also show that normal weight participants had about the same mean number of nominated friendship ties as others reported about them (means of 4.58; 4.79). In contrast, overweight participants nominated more friendship ties with others than they actually received from others (means of 4.29; 3.39).
Myers (2008) states that establishing of friendship relationships is an essential part of social development. It enables children to learn how to communicate, cooperate, and learn about intimacy. It also gives children the opportunity to learn how to resolve differences and conflicts. Because of the stigma that overweight children receive, overweight children have lesser opportunities to establish and build these relationships thus damaging their self efficacy on their ability on making friends.
Being rejected by peers and friendlessness has long term effects. Bagwell, Newcomb, and Bukowski (1998) conducted a longitudinal study that showed fifth graders who were friendless had a greater tendency to show depressive symptoms and low self-esteem long way into adulthood (Cited in Myers, 2008). Social isolation from peers as well as peer victimization can lead to feelings of loneliness. According to Myers (2008) lonely people tend to view others and oneself negatively. They experience a loss of confidence in their socialization skills and blame themselves for their poor social relationships. These negative thinking brings about depressive moods (Myers, 2008).
The Endocrine Society (2009) reports a study on how elevated levels of cortisol relates to depression. Cortisol is a steroid that is released in response to stress. It is also responsible for converting fat into energy. The sample size in this study is a total of 50 obese children and teenagers of which 20 were boys and 30 were girls with ages ranging from eight to 15 years of age. Prior to the study, they were not diagnosed with depression. These children were patients at Athens University pediatric clinic. A questionnaire assessed their symptoms of depression.
Cortisol normally is elevated during mornings, tapers off late morning, and is low at night. In this study, Pervanidou and colleagues took saliva and blood samples from the participants to check their cortisol levels. Results are summarized by lead researcher and author, Dr. Panagiota Pervanidou of Athens University Medical School in Athens, Greece as he states, “There is evidence in adults that abnormal regulation of cortisol plays a role in both obesity and depression. ”
The fact that obese individuals produce higher levels of cortisol which is also the hormone responsible for depression indicates that depression is not only induced by external influences but is internal as well. It further indicates that with external factors and internal hormonal balances such with that that is associated with obesity; there is a more increased tendency for these individuals to show symptoms of depression.
In another article by Carol Hilton (2002) cites a study conducted by endocrinologist Dr. Ronnie Aronson who conducted a study that examined the effectiveness of different approaches to weight loss. The sample consisted of 141 overweight patients. 86 of these patients were successful at losing weight and were able to maintain (with some further losing more weight) after a nine month follow up. Within this study it was found that with weight loss, participants reported to be less depressed. Another interesting fact about this study is that elevation of mood and depression from weight loss is actually better than results from antidepressants. Yet, Dr. Aronson cautions that this elevation of depression should not be correlated to weight loss since it could be the frustration of the attempts and the failure thereof that may be the stronger indicator of mood elevation.
Wilson Lawson (2003) writes an article entitled, “The puzzle of obese children and depression.” This article basically expresses the “chicken and egg dilemma”. Mainly, which comes first, depression or obesity? It cites a study in Pediatric that followed almost 1,000 children in North Carolina over a period of eight years. Respondents were from ages nine to 16. They found that the more the child is overweight, the more likely the child is at risk for depression. Yet, Dr. Sarah Mustillo, a researcher in psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Duke Medical Center, that depression causes obesity when a child becomes too depressed to do any physical activity.
Conclusion
Obesity and depression has become an increasing health risk to children and adolescents. Many factors contributing to obesity is the convenience and trend of unhealthy food and food choices. Unfortunately, this may be tied in with other factors such as low socio-economic statuses and ethnic backgrounds. The social stigma of being obese affects and leads to the deterioration of both self esteem and social efficacy. Without these two beliefs, children do not develop the necessary skills for social interaction. Peer victimization compounds this problem. Peer rejection brings about social isolation and depression. As demonstrated in Strauss and Pollack’s study, social isolation occurs frequently in obese children. Yet, depression in obese children is not affected by behavioral and environmental influences alone. The study conducted by the Endocrine Society indicates that hormonal influences may be partly to blame. The elevated levels of the hormone cortisol were found to be associated with obesity and depression. The study done by Hilton does not believe in the correlation of weight loss and the elevation of depressive symptoms. Instead, it cautions on looking into other factors such as the frustration of unsuccessful attempts of weight loss.
References
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009, June) Child overweight and obesity. Retrieved
July 23, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/
Anonymous, (2008, July) Childhood obesity epidemic. Nutrition Health Review (99), 18.
Retrieved July 22, 2009, from Research Library (Document ID: 1630206071).
Davies, T.. (2008, December). The obesity epidemic - a holistic approach. Journal of
Community Nursing, 22(12), 18-20. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from Research
Library. (Document ID: 1605678951).
Elizabeth Johnston, Shanthi Johnson, Peter McLeod, & Mark Johnston. (2004). The
Relation of Body Mass Index to Depressive Symptoms. Canadian Journal of Public
Health, 95(3), 179-83. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 650078521).
Lowry, et al.,(2007). The effects of weight management programs on self esteem in
pediatric overweight populations. [Electronic version]. Journal of Pediatric
Psychology, 32(10):1179-1195.
Strauss R.S., Pollack, H.A., (2004) Social Marginalization of Overweight Children. Arch
Pediatric Adolescence Med; 157: 746-752. Retrieved July 22, 2009 from
http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/157/8/746
Liem, E., Sauer, P., Oldehinkel, A., & Stolk, R.. (2008). Association Between Depressive
Symptoms in Childhood and Adolescence and Overweight in Later Life: Review of
the Recent Literature. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent
Medicine, 162(10), 981. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1582078271).
Myers, D. G.,(2008) Social Psychology (9th Ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., and Feldman, R.D. (2008) A Child’s World: Infancy through
Adolescence (11th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stacey Colino. (2004, August). The smartest health moves a parent can make. Redbook,
203(2), 158,160. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 670740681).
The Endocrine Society; Symptoms of depression in obese children linked to elevated
cortisol. (2009, July). NewsRx Health & Science,30. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from
Research Library. (Document ID: 1760289591).
Carol Hilton. (2002, October). Study charts depression drop and weight loss. Medical
Post, 38(35), 27. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 224348891).
Willow Lawson. (2003, August). The puzzle of obese children and
depression. Psychology Today, 36(4), 20. Retrieved July 27, 2009, from
ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 356647551).
Obesity among children is on the rise. It threatens children’s physical and emotional wellbeing. The Centers for disease control and prevention (2009) show that over the past 20 years, obesity has more than doubled in children age six to 11 from 6.5% in 1980 to 17% in 2006. In children ages 12 to19 this number has more than tripled. This increase is from 5% to 17.6%. Calculations of child obesity were done by figuring body mass index (also known as BMI) which measures weight in relation to height. A child is considered overweight when belonging at or above the 85th percentile and obese when BMI is at or above 95th percentile for children at the same age and height.
What has caused this alarming increase of this epidemic in children? Among the usual reasons as to weight gain include lack of physical activity and poor genetics. Yet, another substantial concern is today’s society is that of deteriorating eating habits. According to the National Health Review (2008) family income affects a child’s inclination to gain weight. Also, low income families tend to eat more filling starchy foods such as rice, bread, cakes (Echwald, 1999). Families with higher income tend to eat more vegetables.According to recent meta-analysis, individuals of low socioeconomic statuses are prone to depression (Johnston, Johnson, McLeod, and Johnston, 2004). Other culprits to consider are the readily available food choices out there that are high in sugar, salt, and fat contents. These foods are accessible everywhere including vending machines, restaurants, and grocery stores. Many unhealthy food products today are also heavily marketed to target young and impressionable minds. With unhealthy family choices and negative food industry influences affecting children’s eating habits, unhealthy eating is common and has become natural to children (Nutrition Health Review, 2008). These conditions, aggravated by the fact that parents often use food as reward, all contribute to this increasing problem of child obesity.
Obesity is not only detrimental to our children’s physical well being; it is also detrimental to their emotional wellbeing. There is a stigma in being obese. This is especially true in industrialized countries where thinness is considered beautiful and the opposite is not (Myers, 2008). Another study found an association between obesity and self esteem in children as well as adolescence (Cited in Lowry et al., 2007). A study conducted in Australia by Hesketh and colleagues (2004) confirmed this. They conducted a three year longitudinal study of children and found that seven year olds with higher BMIs modestly predicted lower self esteem than other peers their age. In children age 11, higher BMIs became a stronger predictor of low self esteem.Yet, self esteem in obese preschool children remain unaffected (Strauss and Pollack, 2003).It is not surprising that overweight female adolescents are more impacted emotionally than their male counterparts. Overweight females often expect to be rejected and go into withdrawal (Monello and Mayer, 1963). Overall, they have found, both sexes experience more occurrence of depressive symptoms than their normal weight peers.
Depression is a mood disorder that goes beyond temporary feelings of sadness ( Papalia, Olds. and Feldman, 2008). Depression affects self esteem and one’s sense of self efficacy. Some of the characteristics of depression are lack of concentration, fatigue, indifference to physical activity, and feelings of worthlessness and friendlessness. Dr. William L. Coleman, a professor of pediatrics at the Center for Development and Learning at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, states that there has been an increase of 15 percent in depression among school-age children over the last five years (Cited in Colino, 2004).
There are other factors that are influencing this negative outlook when it comes to obesity in children. For one there are Ethnic influences involved. For example, 13 to 14 year old White and Hispanic females who are overweight convey lower self esteem issues than their normal weight counterpart. However, 13 to 14 year old African American females regardless of weight did not show a difference in self esteem. This indicates that American Africans may be more accepting of larger body sizes than Whites or Hispanic whose negative view regarding larger set weights explain for the declined self esteem and tendency towards depression of their young children (Lowry et al., 2007).
A link has been found on low self esteem in relation to peer victimization and the lack of social support (Sweeting, Wright, and Minnis, 2005). Peer victimization focuses on appearances and body weight. Obese children are more prone to be negatively affected by negative peer comments and remarks. Overweight kids are seen by other kids as the least desirable of friends. It may be for also this reason why obese children may be prone to be isolated socially and be on the sidelines of social networks. Peer victimization is also one of the causes of depression in obese children and adolescents. It is easy to see how peer victimization on obese children can lead to both self esteem issues as well as depression. Alarmingly, there is a positive correlation between depressive symptoms at age six to nine years of age and being overweight later on in life. (Liem, Sauer, Oldehinkel, and Stolk, 2008).
A study conducted by Strauss and Pollack (2004) investigated the social networks of overweight and normal weight adolescents. Although overweight adolescent listed the same number of friends as their normal weight counterparts, the results of the study does not show in support of this.
In the study mentioned above, an impressively large sample of 90,118 was taken from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. It included 13 to 18 year old kids who were both of normal and overweight weights. In the study, overweight was defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 95> percentile for age and sex. The method used was of friendship nominations each adolescent received from others. Each participant was allowed 5 best female and 5 best male friends. In and out degree measurements were made. This means that it measured the number of nominations each individual received from other students and the number of nominations that participant made to identify as friends. It also took into consideration extended networks such as friends and friends of friends. Calculations of connections and degree of relationships were then made by matrix programs.
Results show that overweight participants were significantly less popular than normal weight participants with a significant level of p<.001. Overweight participants are less likely to receive 5 friendship nominations and less likely to receive 2 or best friend nominations. On the other hand, those who were nominated by overweight participants as friends were less likely to return the nominations. Results also show that normal weight participants had about the same mean number of nominated friendship ties as others reported about them (means of 4.58; 4.79). In contrast, overweight participants nominated more friendship ties with others than they actually received from others (means of 4.29; 3.39).
Myers (2008) states that establishing of friendship relationships is an essential part of social development. It enables children to learn how to communicate, cooperate, and learn about intimacy. It also gives children the opportunity to learn how to resolve differences and conflicts. Because of the stigma that overweight children receive, overweight children have lesser opportunities to establish and build these relationships thus damaging their self efficacy on their ability on making friends.
Being rejected by peers and friendlessness has long term effects. Bagwell, Newcomb, and Bukowski (1998) conducted a longitudinal study that showed fifth graders who were friendless had a greater tendency to show depressive symptoms and low self-esteem long way into adulthood (Cited in Myers, 2008). Social isolation from peers as well as peer victimization can lead to feelings of loneliness. According to Myers (2008) lonely people tend to view others and oneself negatively. They experience a loss of confidence in their socialization skills and blame themselves for their poor social relationships. These negative thinking brings about depressive moods (Myers, 2008).
The Endocrine Society (2009) reports a study on how elevated levels of cortisol relates to depression. Cortisol is a steroid that is released in response to stress. It is also responsible for converting fat into energy. The sample size in this study is a total of 50 obese children and teenagers of which 20 were boys and 30 were girls with ages ranging from eight to 15 years of age. Prior to the study, they were not diagnosed with depression. These children were patients at Athens University pediatric clinic. A questionnaire assessed their symptoms of depression.
Cortisol normally is elevated during mornings, tapers off late morning, and is low at night. In this study, Pervanidou and colleagues took saliva and blood samples from the participants to check their cortisol levels. Results are summarized by lead researcher and author, Dr. Panagiota Pervanidou of Athens University Medical School in Athens, Greece as he states, “There is evidence in adults that abnormal regulation of cortisol plays a role in both obesity and depression. ”
The fact that obese individuals produce higher levels of cortisol which is also the hormone responsible for depression indicates that depression is not only induced by external influences but is internal as well. It further indicates that with external factors and internal hormonal balances such with that that is associated with obesity; there is a more increased tendency for these individuals to show symptoms of depression.
In another article by Carol Hilton (2002) cites a study conducted by endocrinologist Dr. Ronnie Aronson who conducted a study that examined the effectiveness of different approaches to weight loss. The sample consisted of 141 overweight patients. 86 of these patients were successful at losing weight and were able to maintain (with some further losing more weight) after a nine month follow up. Within this study it was found that with weight loss, participants reported to be less depressed. Another interesting fact about this study is that elevation of mood and depression from weight loss is actually better than results from antidepressants. Yet, Dr. Aronson cautions that this elevation of depression should not be correlated to weight loss since it could be the frustration of the attempts and the failure thereof that may be the stronger indicator of mood elevation.
Wilson Lawson (2003) writes an article entitled, “The puzzle of obese children and depression.” This article basically expresses the “chicken and egg dilemma”. Mainly, which comes first, depression or obesity? It cites a study in Pediatric that followed almost 1,000 children in North Carolina over a period of eight years. Respondents were from ages nine to 16. They found that the more the child is overweight, the more likely the child is at risk for depression. Yet, Dr. Sarah Mustillo, a researcher in psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Duke Medical Center, that depression causes obesity when a child becomes too depressed to do any physical activity.
Conclusion
Obesity and depression has become an increasing health risk to children and adolescents. Many factors contributing to obesity is the convenience and trend of unhealthy food and food choices. Unfortunately, this may be tied in with other factors such as low socio-economic statuses and ethnic backgrounds. The social stigma of being obese affects and leads to the deterioration of both self esteem and social efficacy. Without these two beliefs, children do not develop the necessary skills for social interaction. Peer victimization compounds this problem. Peer rejection brings about social isolation and depression. As demonstrated in Strauss and Pollack’s study, social isolation occurs frequently in obese children. Yet, depression in obese children is not affected by behavioral and environmental influences alone. The study conducted by the Endocrine Society indicates that hormonal influences may be partly to blame. The elevated levels of the hormone cortisol were found to be associated with obesity and depression. The study done by Hilton does not believe in the correlation of weight loss and the elevation of depressive symptoms. Instead, it cautions on looking into other factors such as the frustration of unsuccessful attempts of weight loss.
References
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009, June) Child overweight and obesity. Retrieved
July 23, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/
Anonymous, (2008, July) Childhood obesity epidemic. Nutrition Health Review (99), 18.
Retrieved July 22, 2009, from Research Library (Document ID: 1630206071).
Davies, T.. (2008, December). The obesity epidemic - a holistic approach. Journal of
Community Nursing, 22(12), 18-20. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from Research
Library. (Document ID: 1605678951).
Elizabeth Johnston, Shanthi Johnson, Peter McLeod, & Mark Johnston. (2004). The
Relation of Body Mass Index to Depressive Symptoms. Canadian Journal of Public
Health, 95(3), 179-83. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 650078521).
Lowry, et al.,(2007). The effects of weight management programs on self esteem in
pediatric overweight populations. [Electronic version]. Journal of Pediatric
Psychology, 32(10):1179-1195.
Strauss R.S., Pollack, H.A., (2004) Social Marginalization of Overweight Children. Arch
Pediatric Adolescence Med; 157: 746-752. Retrieved July 22, 2009 from
http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/157/8/746
Liem, E., Sauer, P., Oldehinkel, A., & Stolk, R.. (2008). Association Between Depressive
Symptoms in Childhood and Adolescence and Overweight in Later Life: Review of
the Recent Literature. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent
Medicine, 162(10), 981. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1582078271).
Myers, D. G.,(2008) Social Psychology (9th Ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., and Feldman, R.D. (2008) A Child’s World: Infancy through
Adolescence (11th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stacey Colino. (2004, August). The smartest health moves a parent can make. Redbook,
203(2), 158,160. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 670740681).
The Endocrine Society; Symptoms of depression in obese children linked to elevated
cortisol. (2009, July). NewsRx Health & Science,30. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from
Research Library. (Document ID: 1760289591).
Carol Hilton. (2002, October). Study charts depression drop and weight loss. Medical
Post, 38(35), 27. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 224348891).
Willow Lawson. (2003, August). The puzzle of obese children and
depression. Psychology Today, 36(4), 20. Retrieved July 27, 2009, from
ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 356647551).
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