Clinicians and researchers work on a basis of theories to analyze the given information and understand how the different aspects of a person’s life combine to contribute to maladjusted behavior and ultimately to mental illness.
____________________
Anorexia Nervosa
Individuals with this condition have a distorted concept of their body image. They see themselves as overweight despite being 85% below normal weight. The irrational fear in becoming fat leads to unusual behaviors and physical manifestations. These behaviors include refusing to eat, excessive exercising, and social withdrawal. Physical symptoms include weakness, muscle aches, sleep disturbances, and amenorrhea. Many individuals with anorexia nervosa have obsessive compulsiveness and obsessive compulsive disorders (Crane, Roberts, and Treasure, 2007). Behaviors that support this are seen in how they restrict their food intake. For one, they tend to develop rituals in their choosing, preparing, and ingesting of meals. Although they do not eat the food themselves, they take great delight in preparing the meals for those around them such as spouses and children. When they do consume food rituals such as counting chews per bite and rearranging food on their plate is a constant preoccupation. Another behavior that seemingly supports this is their compulsion for excessive exercise. Individuals with anorexia tend to stick to routine in their daily life as well as in their exercise habits. The try to avoid situations where there might be pressure to eat and when they are with others, they often decline to eat. Because of this, they are inclines to isolate themselves from other people.
Statistics show that the most susceptible ages are 14 and 18 years of age with 90% of which are females (Sarason, 2005). Success rate are also not particularly encouraging. In 1991, only 29% treated resulted in good recoveries; 15% died of suicide and other complications of the disease (Ratnasuriya, Eisler, Szmukler, and Russell, 1991).
Major Theories
As mentioned earlier, clinicians and researchers typically look through the “lens” of theories in order to understand and analyze gathered information. Currently, there are six theoretical perspectives that are commonly used today. These theories are: (a.) the biological perspective, (b.) the psychodynamic perspective, (c.) the behavioral perspective, (d.) the cognitive perspective, (e.) the humanistic-existential perspective, and the (f.) the community-cultural perspective.
Biological Perspective. This perspective calls attention to the role of bodily processes. It assumes that bodily processes such as inherited defects in genes, acquired defects (such as those acquired through injuries and accidents), and hormonal and neurological imbalances can be pinpointed to explain disorders. It recognizes that the body and mind are interrelated and affect each other. In anorexia, hereditary factors specifically physiological mechanisms are suspected. Changes in biochemicals levels that play a role in the control of metabolism and eating such as norepinerprine, serotonin and opioids are seen in people with anorexia (Fava, Copeland, Schweiger, and Herzog, 1989).
Psychodynamic Perspective. The psychodynamic perspective places emphasis on the role of anxiety and inner conflict. It sees thoughts and emotions as important determinants to one’s actions and reactions. Furthermore, one has to look into deeper emotions and feelings to understand troubling behavior. It is interesting to note that while anorexics have a preoccupation with self image, the real issue lies in the lack of self worth (Mayo Clinic, 2010).
Behavioral Perspective. Here, behavior is shown as merely a product and response to environmental stimuli. That is, learning molds behavior thus personality. Behaviorist Ivan Pavlov is known for his infamous classical conditioning experiment. The experiment basically sheds light on the impact of stimuli on behavior. In manipulating external factors behavioral responses change and adjust. Mothers, for instance, may show over concern over their daughter’s weight and physical attractiveness serving as negative stimuli to a daughter’s concept of self worth and identity. Childhood sexual abuse, certain characteristics of family environment, and other early traumatic events are also possible contributors to the condition (Svirko & Hawton, 2007).
Cognitive Perspective. Cognitive perspective based theories examines internal mental processes with an emphasis with mental interpretations and problem solving. In abnormal psychology, it looks for defective thinking as the root of an abnormal behavior. Individuals with anorexia have an impaired ability to process information. The cognitive distortion obviously lies in their ability to interpret their emaciated physical appearances as they continue to think that they are overweight. When clinicians are looking at a disorder through a cognitive perspective, they often use cognitive therapy in conjunction with other treatments. Although there is much variation to different types of cognitive therapy, they normally share three basic assumptions: (a.) Cognitive activity affects behavior, (b.) Cognitive activity can be monitored, and (c.) Behavior change can be achieved through cognitive change (Sarason, 2005).
Humanistic-existential Perspective is an optimistic theoretical approach that emphasizes on individuality and how we have the freedom to make our own decisions. It is has a spiritual context to it not found in other theories. While there is not a lot of back up research to support it, many clinicians see it as an effective approach to rehabilitation. An article by Aida Warah (1993) looks at the anorexic’s compulsion to excessively exercise. It hypothesizes that “overactivity may help the anorexic person achieve a sense of existential permanence by dynamizing her static and too rational mode of being.”.(Warah, 1993).
Community-cultural perspective. This approach looks into the role of culture and community has in contributing to maladaptive behavior or disorder. Western culture and other industrialized countries, for instance, hold thinness as a desirable physical characteristic in individuals especially in women. Obesity is considered undesirable and in fact is associated with many negative stereotypes. A few of which include lazy, unintelligent, and uneducated. Western media also holds a powerful influence in the attractiveness of being thin.
Maladaptive Behavioral Patterns
A behavior is considered maladaptive when it leads the individual to experience a great deal of anxiety, stress, and unhappiness when presented with stressful situations and inner conflict. Individuals with maladaptive behavior tend to have a narrow spectrum on how to act and react. When significant changes happen in his environment, he is unable to adapt and respond appropriately sticking basically to his original way of thought and action. Long term maladaptive behaviors, especially when having an onset from childhood are considered personality disorders. Other features of personality disorders include: (a.) stability-with the behavior being fairly consistent and evident, (b.) pervasive-apparent in social, personal, and occupational areas in life, and (c.) “clinical significant maladaptions resulting in personal distress or impairment in social and occupational functioning” (Sarason, 2005).
Personality disorders falls under three major categories. The first category is odd and eccentric behaviors. Under this category characteristics are the paranoid (tense and guarded), schizoid (restricted emotional expression), and schizotypal (unsettling and peculiar thoughts, appearance, and behavior). Its clinical features include social deficits, absences of close personal relationships, and holds poor prognosis. The second category is dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviors. Under this are the histrionic (seductive behavior and instant gratification), narcissistic (Self absorbed, expecting special treatment), borderline (unable to be alone), and antisocial (exploitive, manipulative, lack of guilt). Characteristics that they share are social and interpersonal instability yet having the condition improve as they age. The last and third category is anxious or fearful behavior. They include the avoidant (avoiding unfamiliar people, places, events to avoid being embarrassed), dependent (fear of abandonment, needs to be with somebody at all cost), and the antisocial (preoccupied with details, perfectionist).
______________________
Theories provide clinicians and researchers an angle on how to understand and analyze gathered information leading to the understanding on how different aspects of a person’s life combine to contribute to maladjusted behavior and mental illness.
References
Sarason, I.G. and Sarason, B.R(2005). Abnormal Psychology: The Problem of
Maladaptive Behavior, 11th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Custom Publishing
Ratnasuriya, R. H., Eiser, I., Szmukler, G.L., and Russell, G.F.M. (1991) Anorexia
nervosa: Outcome and prognostic factors after 20 years. British Journal of
Psychiatry, 158, 495-502.
Fava, M.,Copeland, P.M., Schweiger, U., and Hersog, M.D. (1989). Neurochemical
abnormalities of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. American Journal of
Psychiatry. 146,963-971.
Mayo Clinic. Anorexia Nervosa. Retrieved January 7, 2010. From
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anorexia/DS00606
Elena Svirko, & Keith Hawton. (2007). Self-Injurious Behavior and Eating Disorders:
The Extent and Nature of the Association. Suicide & Life - Threatening
Behavior, 37(4), 409-21. Retrieved January 9, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1334726021).
Warah, Aida. (1993). Overactivity and boundary setting in anorexia nervosa: An
existential perspective. Journal of Adolescence,16(1), 93. Retrieved December 12,
2009, from Research Library.(Document ID: 7187817).
Anna M Crane, Marion E Roberts, & Janet Treasure. (2007). Are obsessive-compulsive
personality traits associated with a poor outcome in anorexia nervosa? A systematic
review of randomized controlled trials and naturalistic outcome studies. Review of
medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. International Journal
of Eating Disorders, 40(7), 581. Retrieved January 11, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1354035261).
Wednesday, January 20, 2010
Monday, January 18, 2010
Irresponsible behavior and the Brain
The orbitofrontal cortex is one of the areas of the brain that help process emotional input. It serves as an interface between brain functions that engages in automatic and controlled responses. It is also recognized for the important role it plays in making moral judgments. According to Carlson (2005) damaged to this area would therefore cause a person to be unable to “make or carry out plans…his actions appear(ing) to be capricious and whimsical”. Carlson also points out that while damage results in the inability to act in a responsible and mature fashion, he also notes that the damage would not hinder him from accurately assessing situations from a purely theoretical perspective. He illustrates this point by citing a patient with bilateral damage (damage to both sides of the brain) to the area who displayed excellent social judgment. When questioned about hypothetical situations involving moral and ethical dilemmas, the patient answered sensibly and with justifiable logic. Yet, in his own life, he was unable to tell the difference between trivial matters and important ones. For instance, he would spend many hours deciding where to eat dinner but was unable to make judgments involving occupation and family (such as squandering the family life savings and making very bad financial decisions).
Learning about the orbitofrontal cortex and how it relates to behavior brought on strong emotional responses in me. It is outrageous to think that the undevelopment, damage, or absence thereof of this region can serve as an excuse for irresponsible and insensitive behavior. Should individuals with behaviors described above be excused because maybe they have something wrong with their orbit frontal cortexes? What if that person was a father or a spouse? How should a wife cope with that knowing that the behavior is practically beyond one’s control? How should society be asked to deal with it?
I guess the best thing to do is to get professional help to gain ways to cope with this unfortunate affliction/brain damage. I’m sure there are ways in which relationships can still be worked out with proper techniques and a great deal of patience and understanding. What this topic particularly hit home to me is that irresponsible behavior may not be a matter of just will and wants. It’s also about what a person is capable physiology-wise/brain-wise of.
References
Carlson, N. R. (2008). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (7th Ed.) Boston: Pearson Allyn-Bacon
Learning about the orbitofrontal cortex and how it relates to behavior brought on strong emotional responses in me. It is outrageous to think that the undevelopment, damage, or absence thereof of this region can serve as an excuse for irresponsible and insensitive behavior. Should individuals with behaviors described above be excused because maybe they have something wrong with their orbit frontal cortexes? What if that person was a father or a spouse? How should a wife cope with that knowing that the behavior is practically beyond one’s control? How should society be asked to deal with it?
I guess the best thing to do is to get professional help to gain ways to cope with this unfortunate affliction/brain damage. I’m sure there are ways in which relationships can still be worked out with proper techniques and a great deal of patience and understanding. What this topic particularly hit home to me is that irresponsible behavior may not be a matter of just will and wants. It’s also about what a person is capable physiology-wise/brain-wise of.
References
Carlson, N. R. (2008). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (7th Ed.) Boston: Pearson Allyn-Bacon
Sunday, January 10, 2010
Physiology and Reproduction
Reproductive Behavior. There are a couple of things I found interesting about reproductive behavior and it’s physiology. One of them is the effects of pheromones. Pheromones are chemicals released by one animal that affects another. Four occurrences observed in mice are associated with the release of certain pheromones. They are: (a.) the Lee-Boot effect, (b.) the Whitten effect, (c.)Vandenberg effect, and (d.) the Bruce effect. The Lee-Boot effect occurs when estrous cycles of a group of females ceases in the absence of a male. Yet, estrous cycles reappear when exposed to male urine with the cycles being synchronized (the Whitten effect). The Vandenberg effect refers to the early onset of puberty of a female caused by the odor of a male. Lastly, the Bruce effect happens when a pregnant female aborts--triggered by the odor of urine from another (assumingly with better genetic make up) male.
What makes pheromones very interesting is how it seems to promote the survival of the species. The Bruce effect in particular reiterates the survival of the fittest. Interestingly as well is the fact that female humans also experiences occurrences similar to the Whitten effect and the Lee-Boot effect. It would explain how women who have very close relationships seem to get pregnant at the same time. Probably this is because they ovulate at the same time as well.
Studies on pheromones usually involve animal research. The influence of pheromones is observed in species such as mice, bees, and beetles. This knowledge can be used to the benefit of insect and pests control and even elimination. When I grew up in the Philippines, insecticides were used to protect the crops. If someone could come up with a way to use this knowledge, this could be a safer and more eco-friendly alternative to harmful chemicals and insecticides. Also in the Philippines there is a certain “black magic” that we call “gayuma”. Funny thing is, there might be “magic” in it after all. Gayuma, from what I recall is a love potion made from a person’s sweat. The person who is trying to attract the attentions of a particular person (romantically) is to exercise intensively, collect his/her sweat, and mix it in a strong drink (such as the local alcohol) and give it to the person they are trying to attract. (This is done over a period of a few weeks.) I used to disregard this as superstition but upon learning about pheromones, I have to say there might be something to it. I am surprised that perfume manufacturers haven’t thought about putting urine, sweat, and other body by products into their merchandise (Or have they? Good thing I am not particularly fond of perfumes). Well, at the very least, this explains why wives like to smell their husband’s armpits. Wouldn’t it be funny if therapists start recommending couples to smell each other’s armpits twice a day? You never know, it might actually work. If nothing else, there’d be a lot of laughing involved :)
I think that the so called superstitions, myths, and etc. needs to be looked into more closely and tested scientifically. There are so many things that may open our eyes and may give us solutions to issues we have today.
Reference
Carlson, N. R. (2008). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (7th Ed.) Boston:
Pearson Allyn-Bacon
What makes pheromones very interesting is how it seems to promote the survival of the species. The Bruce effect in particular reiterates the survival of the fittest. Interestingly as well is the fact that female humans also experiences occurrences similar to the Whitten effect and the Lee-Boot effect. It would explain how women who have very close relationships seem to get pregnant at the same time. Probably this is because they ovulate at the same time as well.
Studies on pheromones usually involve animal research. The influence of pheromones is observed in species such as mice, bees, and beetles. This knowledge can be used to the benefit of insect and pests control and even elimination. When I grew up in the Philippines, insecticides were used to protect the crops. If someone could come up with a way to use this knowledge, this could be a safer and more eco-friendly alternative to harmful chemicals and insecticides. Also in the Philippines there is a certain “black magic” that we call “gayuma”. Funny thing is, there might be “magic” in it after all. Gayuma, from what I recall is a love potion made from a person’s sweat. The person who is trying to attract the attentions of a particular person (romantically) is to exercise intensively, collect his/her sweat, and mix it in a strong drink (such as the local alcohol) and give it to the person they are trying to attract. (This is done over a period of a few weeks.) I used to disregard this as superstition but upon learning about pheromones, I have to say there might be something to it. I am surprised that perfume manufacturers haven’t thought about putting urine, sweat, and other body by products into their merchandise (Or have they? Good thing I am not particularly fond of perfumes). Well, at the very least, this explains why wives like to smell their husband’s armpits. Wouldn’t it be funny if therapists start recommending couples to smell each other’s armpits twice a day? You never know, it might actually work. If nothing else, there’d be a lot of laughing involved :)
I think that the so called superstitions, myths, and etc. needs to be looked into more closely and tested scientifically. There are so many things that may open our eyes and may give us solutions to issues we have today.
Reference
Carlson, N. R. (2008). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (7th Ed.) Boston:
Pearson Allyn-Bacon
Tuesday, January 5, 2010
Child obesity and depression
Can the increasing condition of obesity in children and adolescence negatively affected their social relations? If so, would it be safe to assume that the stigma of being obese would lead to overweight children having a greater tendency towards depression? It is my intent to describe this growing epidemic as well as to understand the relationship between obesity, social interactions, and depression in children. It is my theory that obesity leads to stigmatized children which in turn increase the predisposition towards depression.
Obesity among children is on the rise. It threatens children’s physical and emotional wellbeing. The Centers for disease control and prevention (2009) show that over the past 20 years, obesity has more than doubled in children age six to 11 from 6.5% in 1980 to 17% in 2006. In children ages 12 to19 this number has more than tripled. This increase is from 5% to 17.6%. Calculations of child obesity were done by figuring body mass index (also known as BMI) which measures weight in relation to height. A child is considered overweight when belonging at or above the 85th percentile and obese when BMI is at or above 95th percentile for children at the same age and height.
What has caused this alarming increase of this epidemic in children? Among the usual reasons as to weight gain include lack of physical activity and poor genetics. Yet, another substantial concern is today’s society is that of deteriorating eating habits. According to the National Health Review (2008) family income affects a child’s inclination to gain weight. Also, low income families tend to eat more filling starchy foods such as rice, bread, cakes (Echwald, 1999). Families with higher income tend to eat more vegetables.According to recent meta-analysis, individuals of low socioeconomic statuses are prone to depression (Johnston, Johnson, McLeod, and Johnston, 2004). Other culprits to consider are the readily available food choices out there that are high in sugar, salt, and fat contents. These foods are accessible everywhere including vending machines, restaurants, and grocery stores. Many unhealthy food products today are also heavily marketed to target young and impressionable minds. With unhealthy family choices and negative food industry influences affecting children’s eating habits, unhealthy eating is common and has become natural to children (Nutrition Health Review, 2008). These conditions, aggravated by the fact that parents often use food as reward, all contribute to this increasing problem of child obesity.
Obesity is not only detrimental to our children’s physical well being; it is also detrimental to their emotional wellbeing. There is a stigma in being obese. This is especially true in industrialized countries where thinness is considered beautiful and the opposite is not (Myers, 2008). Another study found an association between obesity and self esteem in children as well as adolescence (Cited in Lowry et al., 2007). A study conducted in Australia by Hesketh and colleagues (2004) confirmed this. They conducted a three year longitudinal study of children and found that seven year olds with higher BMIs modestly predicted lower self esteem than other peers their age. In children age 11, higher BMIs became a stronger predictor of low self esteem.Yet, self esteem in obese preschool children remain unaffected (Strauss and Pollack, 2003).It is not surprising that overweight female adolescents are more impacted emotionally than their male counterparts. Overweight females often expect to be rejected and go into withdrawal (Monello and Mayer, 1963). Overall, they have found, both sexes experience more occurrence of depressive symptoms than their normal weight peers.
Depression is a mood disorder that goes beyond temporary feelings of sadness ( Papalia, Olds. and Feldman, 2008). Depression affects self esteem and one’s sense of self efficacy. Some of the characteristics of depression are lack of concentration, fatigue, indifference to physical activity, and feelings of worthlessness and friendlessness. Dr. William L. Coleman, a professor of pediatrics at the Center for Development and Learning at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, states that there has been an increase of 15 percent in depression among school-age children over the last five years (Cited in Colino, 2004).
There are other factors that are influencing this negative outlook when it comes to obesity in children. For one there are Ethnic influences involved. For example, 13 to 14 year old White and Hispanic females who are overweight convey lower self esteem issues than their normal weight counterpart. However, 13 to 14 year old African American females regardless of weight did not show a difference in self esteem. This indicates that American Africans may be more accepting of larger body sizes than Whites or Hispanic whose negative view regarding larger set weights explain for the declined self esteem and tendency towards depression of their young children (Lowry et al., 2007).
A link has been found on low self esteem in relation to peer victimization and the lack of social support (Sweeting, Wright, and Minnis, 2005). Peer victimization focuses on appearances and body weight. Obese children are more prone to be negatively affected by negative peer comments and remarks. Overweight kids are seen by other kids as the least desirable of friends. It may be for also this reason why obese children may be prone to be isolated socially and be on the sidelines of social networks. Peer victimization is also one of the causes of depression in obese children and adolescents. It is easy to see how peer victimization on obese children can lead to both self esteem issues as well as depression. Alarmingly, there is a positive correlation between depressive symptoms at age six to nine years of age and being overweight later on in life. (Liem, Sauer, Oldehinkel, and Stolk, 2008).
A study conducted by Strauss and Pollack (2004) investigated the social networks of overweight and normal weight adolescents. Although overweight adolescent listed the same number of friends as their normal weight counterparts, the results of the study does not show in support of this.
In the study mentioned above, an impressively large sample of 90,118 was taken from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. It included 13 to 18 year old kids who were both of normal and overweight weights. In the study, overweight was defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 95> percentile for age and sex. The method used was of friendship nominations each adolescent received from others. Each participant was allowed 5 best female and 5 best male friends. In and out degree measurements were made. This means that it measured the number of nominations each individual received from other students and the number of nominations that participant made to identify as friends. It also took into consideration extended networks such as friends and friends of friends. Calculations of connections and degree of relationships were then made by matrix programs.
Results show that overweight participants were significantly less popular than normal weight participants with a significant level of p<.001. Overweight participants are less likely to receive 5 friendship nominations and less likely to receive 2 or best friend nominations. On the other hand, those who were nominated by overweight participants as friends were less likely to return the nominations. Results also show that normal weight participants had about the same mean number of nominated friendship ties as others reported about them (means of 4.58; 4.79). In contrast, overweight participants nominated more friendship ties with others than they actually received from others (means of 4.29; 3.39).
Myers (2008) states that establishing of friendship relationships is an essential part of social development. It enables children to learn how to communicate, cooperate, and learn about intimacy. It also gives children the opportunity to learn how to resolve differences and conflicts. Because of the stigma that overweight children receive, overweight children have lesser opportunities to establish and build these relationships thus damaging their self efficacy on their ability on making friends.
Being rejected by peers and friendlessness has long term effects. Bagwell, Newcomb, and Bukowski (1998) conducted a longitudinal study that showed fifth graders who were friendless had a greater tendency to show depressive symptoms and low self-esteem long way into adulthood (Cited in Myers, 2008). Social isolation from peers as well as peer victimization can lead to feelings of loneliness. According to Myers (2008) lonely people tend to view others and oneself negatively. They experience a loss of confidence in their socialization skills and blame themselves for their poor social relationships. These negative thinking brings about depressive moods (Myers, 2008).
The Endocrine Society (2009) reports a study on how elevated levels of cortisol relates to depression. Cortisol is a steroid that is released in response to stress. It is also responsible for converting fat into energy. The sample size in this study is a total of 50 obese children and teenagers of which 20 were boys and 30 were girls with ages ranging from eight to 15 years of age. Prior to the study, they were not diagnosed with depression. These children were patients at Athens University pediatric clinic. A questionnaire assessed their symptoms of depression.
Cortisol normally is elevated during mornings, tapers off late morning, and is low at night. In this study, Pervanidou and colleagues took saliva and blood samples from the participants to check their cortisol levels. Results are summarized by lead researcher and author, Dr. Panagiota Pervanidou of Athens University Medical School in Athens, Greece as he states, “There is evidence in adults that abnormal regulation of cortisol plays a role in both obesity and depression. ”
The fact that obese individuals produce higher levels of cortisol which is also the hormone responsible for depression indicates that depression is not only induced by external influences but is internal as well. It further indicates that with external factors and internal hormonal balances such with that that is associated with obesity; there is a more increased tendency for these individuals to show symptoms of depression.
In another article by Carol Hilton (2002) cites a study conducted by endocrinologist Dr. Ronnie Aronson who conducted a study that examined the effectiveness of different approaches to weight loss. The sample consisted of 141 overweight patients. 86 of these patients were successful at losing weight and were able to maintain (with some further losing more weight) after a nine month follow up. Within this study it was found that with weight loss, participants reported to be less depressed. Another interesting fact about this study is that elevation of mood and depression from weight loss is actually better than results from antidepressants. Yet, Dr. Aronson cautions that this elevation of depression should not be correlated to weight loss since it could be the frustration of the attempts and the failure thereof that may be the stronger indicator of mood elevation.
Wilson Lawson (2003) writes an article entitled, “The puzzle of obese children and depression.” This article basically expresses the “chicken and egg dilemma”. Mainly, which comes first, depression or obesity? It cites a study in Pediatric that followed almost 1,000 children in North Carolina over a period of eight years. Respondents were from ages nine to 16. They found that the more the child is overweight, the more likely the child is at risk for depression. Yet, Dr. Sarah Mustillo, a researcher in psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Duke Medical Center, that depression causes obesity when a child becomes too depressed to do any physical activity.
Conclusion
Obesity and depression has become an increasing health risk to children and adolescents. Many factors contributing to obesity is the convenience and trend of unhealthy food and food choices. Unfortunately, this may be tied in with other factors such as low socio-economic statuses and ethnic backgrounds. The social stigma of being obese affects and leads to the deterioration of both self esteem and social efficacy. Without these two beliefs, children do not develop the necessary skills for social interaction. Peer victimization compounds this problem. Peer rejection brings about social isolation and depression. As demonstrated in Strauss and Pollack’s study, social isolation occurs frequently in obese children. Yet, depression in obese children is not affected by behavioral and environmental influences alone. The study conducted by the Endocrine Society indicates that hormonal influences may be partly to blame. The elevated levels of the hormone cortisol were found to be associated with obesity and depression. The study done by Hilton does not believe in the correlation of weight loss and the elevation of depressive symptoms. Instead, it cautions on looking into other factors such as the frustration of unsuccessful attempts of weight loss.
References
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009, June) Child overweight and obesity. Retrieved
July 23, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/
Anonymous, (2008, July) Childhood obesity epidemic. Nutrition Health Review (99), 18.
Retrieved July 22, 2009, from Research Library (Document ID: 1630206071).
Davies, T.. (2008, December). The obesity epidemic - a holistic approach. Journal of
Community Nursing, 22(12), 18-20. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from Research
Library. (Document ID: 1605678951).
Elizabeth Johnston, Shanthi Johnson, Peter McLeod, & Mark Johnston. (2004). The
Relation of Body Mass Index to Depressive Symptoms. Canadian Journal of Public
Health, 95(3), 179-83. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 650078521).
Lowry, et al.,(2007). The effects of weight management programs on self esteem in
pediatric overweight populations. [Electronic version]. Journal of Pediatric
Psychology, 32(10):1179-1195.
Strauss R.S., Pollack, H.A., (2004) Social Marginalization of Overweight Children. Arch
Pediatric Adolescence Med; 157: 746-752. Retrieved July 22, 2009 from
http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/157/8/746
Liem, E., Sauer, P., Oldehinkel, A., & Stolk, R.. (2008). Association Between Depressive
Symptoms in Childhood and Adolescence and Overweight in Later Life: Review of
the Recent Literature. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent
Medicine, 162(10), 981. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1582078271).
Myers, D. G.,(2008) Social Psychology (9th Ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., and Feldman, R.D. (2008) A Child’s World: Infancy through
Adolescence (11th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stacey Colino. (2004, August). The smartest health moves a parent can make. Redbook,
203(2), 158,160. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 670740681).
The Endocrine Society; Symptoms of depression in obese children linked to elevated
cortisol. (2009, July). NewsRx Health & Science,30. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from
Research Library. (Document ID: 1760289591).
Carol Hilton. (2002, October). Study charts depression drop and weight loss. Medical
Post, 38(35), 27. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 224348891).
Willow Lawson. (2003, August). The puzzle of obese children and
depression. Psychology Today, 36(4), 20. Retrieved July 27, 2009, from
ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 356647551).
Obesity among children is on the rise. It threatens children’s physical and emotional wellbeing. The Centers for disease control and prevention (2009) show that over the past 20 years, obesity has more than doubled in children age six to 11 from 6.5% in 1980 to 17% in 2006. In children ages 12 to19 this number has more than tripled. This increase is from 5% to 17.6%. Calculations of child obesity were done by figuring body mass index (also known as BMI) which measures weight in relation to height. A child is considered overweight when belonging at or above the 85th percentile and obese when BMI is at or above 95th percentile for children at the same age and height.
What has caused this alarming increase of this epidemic in children? Among the usual reasons as to weight gain include lack of physical activity and poor genetics. Yet, another substantial concern is today’s society is that of deteriorating eating habits. According to the National Health Review (2008) family income affects a child’s inclination to gain weight. Also, low income families tend to eat more filling starchy foods such as rice, bread, cakes (Echwald, 1999). Families with higher income tend to eat more vegetables.According to recent meta-analysis, individuals of low socioeconomic statuses are prone to depression (Johnston, Johnson, McLeod, and Johnston, 2004). Other culprits to consider are the readily available food choices out there that are high in sugar, salt, and fat contents. These foods are accessible everywhere including vending machines, restaurants, and grocery stores. Many unhealthy food products today are also heavily marketed to target young and impressionable minds. With unhealthy family choices and negative food industry influences affecting children’s eating habits, unhealthy eating is common and has become natural to children (Nutrition Health Review, 2008). These conditions, aggravated by the fact that parents often use food as reward, all contribute to this increasing problem of child obesity.
Obesity is not only detrimental to our children’s physical well being; it is also detrimental to their emotional wellbeing. There is a stigma in being obese. This is especially true in industrialized countries where thinness is considered beautiful and the opposite is not (Myers, 2008). Another study found an association between obesity and self esteem in children as well as adolescence (Cited in Lowry et al., 2007). A study conducted in Australia by Hesketh and colleagues (2004) confirmed this. They conducted a three year longitudinal study of children and found that seven year olds with higher BMIs modestly predicted lower self esteem than other peers their age. In children age 11, higher BMIs became a stronger predictor of low self esteem.Yet, self esteem in obese preschool children remain unaffected (Strauss and Pollack, 2003).It is not surprising that overweight female adolescents are more impacted emotionally than their male counterparts. Overweight females often expect to be rejected and go into withdrawal (Monello and Mayer, 1963). Overall, they have found, both sexes experience more occurrence of depressive symptoms than their normal weight peers.
Depression is a mood disorder that goes beyond temporary feelings of sadness ( Papalia, Olds. and Feldman, 2008). Depression affects self esteem and one’s sense of self efficacy. Some of the characteristics of depression are lack of concentration, fatigue, indifference to physical activity, and feelings of worthlessness and friendlessness. Dr. William L. Coleman, a professor of pediatrics at the Center for Development and Learning at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, states that there has been an increase of 15 percent in depression among school-age children over the last five years (Cited in Colino, 2004).
There are other factors that are influencing this negative outlook when it comes to obesity in children. For one there are Ethnic influences involved. For example, 13 to 14 year old White and Hispanic females who are overweight convey lower self esteem issues than their normal weight counterpart. However, 13 to 14 year old African American females regardless of weight did not show a difference in self esteem. This indicates that American Africans may be more accepting of larger body sizes than Whites or Hispanic whose negative view regarding larger set weights explain for the declined self esteem and tendency towards depression of their young children (Lowry et al., 2007).
A link has been found on low self esteem in relation to peer victimization and the lack of social support (Sweeting, Wright, and Minnis, 2005). Peer victimization focuses on appearances and body weight. Obese children are more prone to be negatively affected by negative peer comments and remarks. Overweight kids are seen by other kids as the least desirable of friends. It may be for also this reason why obese children may be prone to be isolated socially and be on the sidelines of social networks. Peer victimization is also one of the causes of depression in obese children and adolescents. It is easy to see how peer victimization on obese children can lead to both self esteem issues as well as depression. Alarmingly, there is a positive correlation between depressive symptoms at age six to nine years of age and being overweight later on in life. (Liem, Sauer, Oldehinkel, and Stolk, 2008).
A study conducted by Strauss and Pollack (2004) investigated the social networks of overweight and normal weight adolescents. Although overweight adolescent listed the same number of friends as their normal weight counterparts, the results of the study does not show in support of this.
In the study mentioned above, an impressively large sample of 90,118 was taken from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. It included 13 to 18 year old kids who were both of normal and overweight weights. In the study, overweight was defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 95> percentile for age and sex. The method used was of friendship nominations each adolescent received from others. Each participant was allowed 5 best female and 5 best male friends. In and out degree measurements were made. This means that it measured the number of nominations each individual received from other students and the number of nominations that participant made to identify as friends. It also took into consideration extended networks such as friends and friends of friends. Calculations of connections and degree of relationships were then made by matrix programs.
Results show that overweight participants were significantly less popular than normal weight participants with a significant level of p<.001. Overweight participants are less likely to receive 5 friendship nominations and less likely to receive 2 or best friend nominations. On the other hand, those who were nominated by overweight participants as friends were less likely to return the nominations. Results also show that normal weight participants had about the same mean number of nominated friendship ties as others reported about them (means of 4.58; 4.79). In contrast, overweight participants nominated more friendship ties with others than they actually received from others (means of 4.29; 3.39).
Myers (2008) states that establishing of friendship relationships is an essential part of social development. It enables children to learn how to communicate, cooperate, and learn about intimacy. It also gives children the opportunity to learn how to resolve differences and conflicts. Because of the stigma that overweight children receive, overweight children have lesser opportunities to establish and build these relationships thus damaging their self efficacy on their ability on making friends.
Being rejected by peers and friendlessness has long term effects. Bagwell, Newcomb, and Bukowski (1998) conducted a longitudinal study that showed fifth graders who were friendless had a greater tendency to show depressive symptoms and low self-esteem long way into adulthood (Cited in Myers, 2008). Social isolation from peers as well as peer victimization can lead to feelings of loneliness. According to Myers (2008) lonely people tend to view others and oneself negatively. They experience a loss of confidence in their socialization skills and blame themselves for their poor social relationships. These negative thinking brings about depressive moods (Myers, 2008).
The Endocrine Society (2009) reports a study on how elevated levels of cortisol relates to depression. Cortisol is a steroid that is released in response to stress. It is also responsible for converting fat into energy. The sample size in this study is a total of 50 obese children and teenagers of which 20 were boys and 30 were girls with ages ranging from eight to 15 years of age. Prior to the study, they were not diagnosed with depression. These children were patients at Athens University pediatric clinic. A questionnaire assessed their symptoms of depression.
Cortisol normally is elevated during mornings, tapers off late morning, and is low at night. In this study, Pervanidou and colleagues took saliva and blood samples from the participants to check their cortisol levels. Results are summarized by lead researcher and author, Dr. Panagiota Pervanidou of Athens University Medical School in Athens, Greece as he states, “There is evidence in adults that abnormal regulation of cortisol plays a role in both obesity and depression. ”
The fact that obese individuals produce higher levels of cortisol which is also the hormone responsible for depression indicates that depression is not only induced by external influences but is internal as well. It further indicates that with external factors and internal hormonal balances such with that that is associated with obesity; there is a more increased tendency for these individuals to show symptoms of depression.
In another article by Carol Hilton (2002) cites a study conducted by endocrinologist Dr. Ronnie Aronson who conducted a study that examined the effectiveness of different approaches to weight loss. The sample consisted of 141 overweight patients. 86 of these patients were successful at losing weight and were able to maintain (with some further losing more weight) after a nine month follow up. Within this study it was found that with weight loss, participants reported to be less depressed. Another interesting fact about this study is that elevation of mood and depression from weight loss is actually better than results from antidepressants. Yet, Dr. Aronson cautions that this elevation of depression should not be correlated to weight loss since it could be the frustration of the attempts and the failure thereof that may be the stronger indicator of mood elevation.
Wilson Lawson (2003) writes an article entitled, “The puzzle of obese children and depression.” This article basically expresses the “chicken and egg dilemma”. Mainly, which comes first, depression or obesity? It cites a study in Pediatric that followed almost 1,000 children in North Carolina over a period of eight years. Respondents were from ages nine to 16. They found that the more the child is overweight, the more likely the child is at risk for depression. Yet, Dr. Sarah Mustillo, a researcher in psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Duke Medical Center, that depression causes obesity when a child becomes too depressed to do any physical activity.
Conclusion
Obesity and depression has become an increasing health risk to children and adolescents. Many factors contributing to obesity is the convenience and trend of unhealthy food and food choices. Unfortunately, this may be tied in with other factors such as low socio-economic statuses and ethnic backgrounds. The social stigma of being obese affects and leads to the deterioration of both self esteem and social efficacy. Without these two beliefs, children do not develop the necessary skills for social interaction. Peer victimization compounds this problem. Peer rejection brings about social isolation and depression. As demonstrated in Strauss and Pollack’s study, social isolation occurs frequently in obese children. Yet, depression in obese children is not affected by behavioral and environmental influences alone. The study conducted by the Endocrine Society indicates that hormonal influences may be partly to blame. The elevated levels of the hormone cortisol were found to be associated with obesity and depression. The study done by Hilton does not believe in the correlation of weight loss and the elevation of depressive symptoms. Instead, it cautions on looking into other factors such as the frustration of unsuccessful attempts of weight loss.
References
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009, June) Child overweight and obesity. Retrieved
July 23, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/
Anonymous, (2008, July) Childhood obesity epidemic. Nutrition Health Review (99), 18.
Retrieved July 22, 2009, from Research Library (Document ID: 1630206071).
Davies, T.. (2008, December). The obesity epidemic - a holistic approach. Journal of
Community Nursing, 22(12), 18-20. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from Research
Library. (Document ID: 1605678951).
Elizabeth Johnston, Shanthi Johnson, Peter McLeod, & Mark Johnston. (2004). The
Relation of Body Mass Index to Depressive Symptoms. Canadian Journal of Public
Health, 95(3), 179-83. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 650078521).
Lowry, et al.,(2007). The effects of weight management programs on self esteem in
pediatric overweight populations. [Electronic version]. Journal of Pediatric
Psychology, 32(10):1179-1195.
Strauss R.S., Pollack, H.A., (2004) Social Marginalization of Overweight Children. Arch
Pediatric Adolescence Med; 157: 746-752. Retrieved July 22, 2009 from
http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/157/8/746
Liem, E., Sauer, P., Oldehinkel, A., & Stolk, R.. (2008). Association Between Depressive
Symptoms in Childhood and Adolescence and Overweight in Later Life: Review of
the Recent Literature. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent
Medicine, 162(10), 981. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1582078271).
Myers, D. G.,(2008) Social Psychology (9th Ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., and Feldman, R.D. (2008) A Child’s World: Infancy through
Adolescence (11th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stacey Colino. (2004, August). The smartest health moves a parent can make. Redbook,
203(2), 158,160. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 670740681).
The Endocrine Society; Symptoms of depression in obese children linked to elevated
cortisol. (2009, July). NewsRx Health & Science,30. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from
Research Library. (Document ID: 1760289591).
Carol Hilton. (2002, October). Study charts depression drop and weight loss. Medical
Post, 38(35), 27. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from Research Library. (Document
ID: 224348891).
Willow Lawson. (2003, August). The puzzle of obese children and
depression. Psychology Today, 36(4), 20. Retrieved July 27, 2009, from
ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 356647551).
Friday, January 1, 2010
Music and Emotion
Music elicits emotions. Tone, pitch, note variation, duration, and other factors extracts a variation of responses from us ranging from mere tapping of our feet, the nodding of our heads, to a full blown dance. Less obvious responses are also occurring that we may not be fully aware of. Cardio-respiratory rate changes occur and bio-chemicals such endorphins and dopamine may be released. Recently there has been interest shown towards investigating music and its workings on physiological and biological levels with a main interest of applying its findings to clinical situations. So far, music has been found to be an effective therapy for many neurological and psychiatric disorders including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson disease, depression, dementia, and anxiety. It has also been used in pain management.
Boso et al. (2006) discusses music stimuli and its neurobiological, neuropsychological, and neurophysiological pathways. This was done by discussing the neuroanatomy of the perceptual processing of music, the neuroanatomy of the emotional processing of music, the electrophysiological aspects of music processing, and the biochemical correlates of the musical experience.
Boso et al. presents many interesting points throughout the article. For instance, as they discuss the perceptual processing on music, they note that although music stimuli is normally processed like any other sound (via the auditory pathway), music vibrations also activate skin receptors. Another interesting fact is on how it notes that aside from the normal route of sound stimuli being collected from the outer ear and basically routed to the cochlea, to the auditory nerve, and, consequently, to the auditory thalamus and the auditory cortex, auditory projections are also routed to the amygdala and the medial orbitofrontal cortex, two areas of the brain that play a part in the processing of emotions. According to Carlson (2005), the amygdala is responsible for behavioral, automatic, and hormonal responses. The orbitofrontal cortex, located at base of the frontal lobe, receive and process various input from various regions of the brain including other regions of the frontal lobe. Its input is then dispensed to several areas including the cingulated gyrus, temporal cortex, and back to the amgdala thus affecting behavioral and physiological responses including emotional ones organized by the amygdala (Carlson, 2005). As this article continues to explain the emotional side of processing music, it cites a study conducted by Blood and Zatorre (2001) that discovered how the frontal lobes are activated when listening to pleasant music while the temporal lobes are activated during unpleasant music. Carlson (2005) notes that these two areas plays a role in speech and word recognition.
The article also discusses dopamine, endorphins, endocannabinoids, naloxone, and nitric oxide as biochemicals involved in the musical experience. “Dopamine, which is thought to play a crucial role in the response to naturally rewarding stimuli, may be involved in the enjoyment of music as well” (Boso et al., 2006).This may also be true for endorphins and endocannabiniods released into the bloodstream when listening to music. Naloxone may be responsible for the decrease of pleasant sensations brought about by listening to music. Lastly, nitric acid produces physical reactions by “inducing vasodilatation, warming of skin, and reduction of blood pressure valves” (Boso et al., 2006). The most fascinating fact regarding nitric acid is that it posses antibacterial, antiviral, and immunodulatory functions. The article then speculates if “listening to pleasant music could help to protect the organism against bacterial and viral infections, excessive immune and endothelial activation, as well as the detrimental effects of arterial hypertension” (Boso, et al., 2006).
Electroencephalography, otherwise known as EEG, has been a useful tool in measuring brain responses to music stimuli. Studies using the EEG, “left frontal asymmetry has been associated with positive affect or decreased negative in response to musical stimuli, whereas right frontal asymmestry has been associated with negative affect or decreased positive affect” (Boso et al, 2006). The article also mentions that when using the event related potential technique (ERP), unexpected words produces in a musical melody produces higher peek amplitudes than unexpected words spoken in a sentence. Event-related potentials allows for the separation of small potentials evoked by sensory stimuli from the larger voltage oscillations present in EEGs (Stefanatos & Osman, 2006). The ERP has proven useful in comparing language and music processing.
Carlson (2005) notes that there are two affective disorders that have depressive symptoms namely the bipolar disorder characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression and unipolar depression, a form of depression without the manic episodes. These conditions are particularly dangerous because individuals with this disorders often attempt to commit suicide. They can have very little energy, cry a lot, and unable to experience pleasure. Those with manic symptoms also have bouts of relentless energy and experience feelings of unjustifiable feelings of elation. Currently, these conditions are treated by medication. These medications include iproniazid, tricyclic antidepressants, and specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Electroconvulsice therapy (ECT) have also shown effective in the treatment of depression. An article by Tornik, Field, Hernandez-Reif, Diego, and Jones (2003) shows a promising and exciting alternative to the treatment of depression with the use of music as stimuli. In this experimental study where depressive mothers were asked to randomly listen to 20 minutes of either classical or rock music in an effort to understand the effects of music and emotion. This is a longitudinal study with 48 intrusive and withdrawn participating mothers who at the time had infants between the ages of three to six months of age. Intrusive mothers possessed behaviors such as “rough tickling, poking and tugging during interactions, using rapid, staccato movements, and showing tense and fake facial expressions (Torner et al., 2003). Withdrawn mothers demonstrated “flat affects, rare touching, rare vocalizing, disengaged behaviors, and looking away from the infant” (Torner et al., 2003). Power analysis shows that 48 participants for this study would yield an effect size of .40 with a .70 power (Although standard power level is of .80, it is the author’s opinion that the results in this study is quite compelling).
Participants were selected based on three screening measures. These measures include: (a.) Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D), (b.) Intrusive/Withdrawn Interaction Style-Coding, and lastly,(c.) The Behavior Inhibition and Behavior Inhibition and Behavior Activation System Scale (BIS/BAS). The CES-D was used to determine depressive symptoms. The last two tools assessed interaction styles with the second one used as a confirmatory tool.
Actual experimental research was conducted one month after assessments. The women were randomly chosen to listen to 20 minutes of either rock or classical music. Three things were done before and after listening sessions: (a.) EEG was recorded three minutes before and after, (b) saliva samples were taken to measure cortisol levels, ( c.) mood and anxiety questionnaires were given ( questionnaire tools used were The Profile of Mood States-Depression Subscale (POMS) and The State Anxiety Inventory (STAI)).
Results show that all groups showed a decrease in depressive moods using the POM questionnaire tool yet only those intrusive-depressed mothers that listened to rock music showed a decrease in STAI anxiety score. Also, it is only this group of mothers that had significant decreased in cortisol levels shown in their saliva analysis.
As mentioned earlier, EEG is a useful tool in measuring brain responses to musical stimuli. Greater relative right frontal EEG activation is associated with the experience of negative emotions; left front EGG activation is associated with the experience of positive emotions. Yet, the authors on this article would like its readers to consider the corresponding EEG patterns under the broader categories of approach-avoidance emotions. This theory indicates that approach emotions such as joy, interest, and anger activate the left frontal regions and avoidance emotions such as distress and disgust activates the right frontal regions. Thus, if EEG were to measure brain activity before experimentation results would show that the mothers who were intrusive (approach) would exhibit left frontal EEG activation patterns, the mothers who were withdrawn (avoidance) would exhibit right frontal EEG activation.
The EEG for this study then yielded the following results. In general, The EEG showed greater relative right-frontal EEG activation (associated with feelings of distress and disgust) when listening for classical music and left-frontal EEG activation (associated with feelings of joy and interest) for rock music suggests a preference for rock music. “Although the intrusive group EEG values did not differ significantly across music types, the EEG for the withdrawn group suggested less negative (less right-frontal EEG) values for the rock than for the classical music.” (Boso et al., 2006). In conclusion, rock music elevated the moods of withdrawn depressive mothers as the study predicted but classical music did not show any benefit to the intrusive depressive group as originally theorized.
Potential Contributions and Author’s Areas of Learning
Music is something we often take for granted. It seems that instinctively it is understood by anyone and everyone. From its tempo, beat, and lyrics we naturally understand the meaning and the message that it seeks to convey. Music has always been a part of human existence. It is common understanding that different types, tempos, rhythms and such of music elicit different emotional responses within us. What is not common knowledge are the body’s physiological responses. In recent years, music has been an area of interest to be studied in a scientific approach in search of understanding its effects in clinical management in neurological and psychiatric disorders. Both articles mentioned above are such research. They believe that the understanding thereof can make significant contributions in clinical settings.
The first article, “Neurophysiology and Neurobiology of the Musical Experience” brings forth many interesting details such as how music stimuli are not only processed via normal auditory physiological pathways but also activates skin receptors. Another interesting detail presented in this article is how perceived pleasant musical stimuli activated frontal lobes as opposed to the temporal lobes activated by unpleasant.
The second article entitled, “Music Effects on EEG in Intrusive and Withdrawn Mothers with Depressive Symptoms” found that rock music was generally beneficial to all its participants regardless of interaction type. This shows that rock music can be used as an energizing tool in depression and its symptoms. Both articles agree that preliminary studies such these needs to be confirmed and expanded on.
Both articles have deepened the author’s understanding on basic physiology and the need to understand it.
Conclusion
Music can serve humankind beyond social interaction and self expression. The two articles above shows that music works in deeper levels than one may initially think. It have come to this author’s attention how complex music is as a stimuli as it shows to activate receptors of both skin and auditory systems alike and affecting not only emotional areas of the brain but also areas responsible for language comprehension. It shows that it can be therapeutic and effective in reducing stress and depression. The ability of music stimuli to cause biochemicals such as dopamine, endocannabiniods naloxone supports this. It shows to play a promising role in the treatment of diseases both psychiatric and neurologic. Unfortunately, as both article mentions, there are limited scientific research on this.
References
Anne J Blood, & Robert J Zatorre. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98(20), 11818-11823. Retrieved November 23, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 86813640).
Boso, M., Politi, P., Barale, F., Emanuele, E. (2006) Neurophysiology and neurobiology
of the musical experience. Functional Neurology, 21(4), 187-91. Retrieved November
6, 2009. From Proquest Health and Medical Complete. ( Document ID: 1240556101).
Carlson, N.R., (2005). Foundations of physiological psychology ( 6thed.) Boston: Pearson
Education.
Stefanatos, G.A. and Osman, A (2006) Introduction to the application of event-related
potentials in cognitive rehabilitation research. Retrieved November 23, 2009. From
http://www.ncrrn.org/papers/methodology_papers/event_related_potentials.pdf
Tornik, A., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Diego, M., Jones, N. (2003). Music effects
on EEG in intrusive and withdrawn mothers with depressive symptoms. Psychiatry;
66, 3; Research Library.
Boso et al. (2006) discusses music stimuli and its neurobiological, neuropsychological, and neurophysiological pathways. This was done by discussing the neuroanatomy of the perceptual processing of music, the neuroanatomy of the emotional processing of music, the electrophysiological aspects of music processing, and the biochemical correlates of the musical experience.
Boso et al. presents many interesting points throughout the article. For instance, as they discuss the perceptual processing on music, they note that although music stimuli is normally processed like any other sound (via the auditory pathway), music vibrations also activate skin receptors. Another interesting fact is on how it notes that aside from the normal route of sound stimuli being collected from the outer ear and basically routed to the cochlea, to the auditory nerve, and, consequently, to the auditory thalamus and the auditory cortex, auditory projections are also routed to the amygdala and the medial orbitofrontal cortex, two areas of the brain that play a part in the processing of emotions. According to Carlson (2005), the amygdala is responsible for behavioral, automatic, and hormonal responses. The orbitofrontal cortex, located at base of the frontal lobe, receive and process various input from various regions of the brain including other regions of the frontal lobe. Its input is then dispensed to several areas including the cingulated gyrus, temporal cortex, and back to the amgdala thus affecting behavioral and physiological responses including emotional ones organized by the amygdala (Carlson, 2005). As this article continues to explain the emotional side of processing music, it cites a study conducted by Blood and Zatorre (2001) that discovered how the frontal lobes are activated when listening to pleasant music while the temporal lobes are activated during unpleasant music. Carlson (2005) notes that these two areas plays a role in speech and word recognition.
The article also discusses dopamine, endorphins, endocannabinoids, naloxone, and nitric oxide as biochemicals involved in the musical experience. “Dopamine, which is thought to play a crucial role in the response to naturally rewarding stimuli, may be involved in the enjoyment of music as well” (Boso et al., 2006).This may also be true for endorphins and endocannabiniods released into the bloodstream when listening to music. Naloxone may be responsible for the decrease of pleasant sensations brought about by listening to music. Lastly, nitric acid produces physical reactions by “inducing vasodilatation, warming of skin, and reduction of blood pressure valves” (Boso et al., 2006). The most fascinating fact regarding nitric acid is that it posses antibacterial, antiviral, and immunodulatory functions. The article then speculates if “listening to pleasant music could help to protect the organism against bacterial and viral infections, excessive immune and endothelial activation, as well as the detrimental effects of arterial hypertension” (Boso, et al., 2006).
Electroencephalography, otherwise known as EEG, has been a useful tool in measuring brain responses to music stimuli. Studies using the EEG, “left frontal asymmetry has been associated with positive affect or decreased negative in response to musical stimuli, whereas right frontal asymmestry has been associated with negative affect or decreased positive affect” (Boso et al, 2006). The article also mentions that when using the event related potential technique (ERP), unexpected words produces in a musical melody produces higher peek amplitudes than unexpected words spoken in a sentence. Event-related potentials allows for the separation of small potentials evoked by sensory stimuli from the larger voltage oscillations present in EEGs (Stefanatos & Osman, 2006). The ERP has proven useful in comparing language and music processing.
Carlson (2005) notes that there are two affective disorders that have depressive symptoms namely the bipolar disorder characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression and unipolar depression, a form of depression without the manic episodes. These conditions are particularly dangerous because individuals with this disorders often attempt to commit suicide. They can have very little energy, cry a lot, and unable to experience pleasure. Those with manic symptoms also have bouts of relentless energy and experience feelings of unjustifiable feelings of elation. Currently, these conditions are treated by medication. These medications include iproniazid, tricyclic antidepressants, and specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Electroconvulsice therapy (ECT) have also shown effective in the treatment of depression. An article by Tornik, Field, Hernandez-Reif, Diego, and Jones (2003) shows a promising and exciting alternative to the treatment of depression with the use of music as stimuli. In this experimental study where depressive mothers were asked to randomly listen to 20 minutes of either classical or rock music in an effort to understand the effects of music and emotion. This is a longitudinal study with 48 intrusive and withdrawn participating mothers who at the time had infants between the ages of three to six months of age. Intrusive mothers possessed behaviors such as “rough tickling, poking and tugging during interactions, using rapid, staccato movements, and showing tense and fake facial expressions (Torner et al., 2003). Withdrawn mothers demonstrated “flat affects, rare touching, rare vocalizing, disengaged behaviors, and looking away from the infant” (Torner et al., 2003). Power analysis shows that 48 participants for this study would yield an effect size of .40 with a .70 power (Although standard power level is of .80, it is the author’s opinion that the results in this study is quite compelling).
Participants were selected based on three screening measures. These measures include: (a.) Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D), (b.) Intrusive/Withdrawn Interaction Style-Coding, and lastly,(c.) The Behavior Inhibition and Behavior Inhibition and Behavior Activation System Scale (BIS/BAS). The CES-D was used to determine depressive symptoms. The last two tools assessed interaction styles with the second one used as a confirmatory tool.
Actual experimental research was conducted one month after assessments. The women were randomly chosen to listen to 20 minutes of either rock or classical music. Three things were done before and after listening sessions: (a.) EEG was recorded three minutes before and after, (b) saliva samples were taken to measure cortisol levels, ( c.) mood and anxiety questionnaires were given ( questionnaire tools used were The Profile of Mood States-Depression Subscale (POMS) and The State Anxiety Inventory (STAI)).
Results show that all groups showed a decrease in depressive moods using the POM questionnaire tool yet only those intrusive-depressed mothers that listened to rock music showed a decrease in STAI anxiety score. Also, it is only this group of mothers that had significant decreased in cortisol levels shown in their saliva analysis.
As mentioned earlier, EEG is a useful tool in measuring brain responses to musical stimuli. Greater relative right frontal EEG activation is associated with the experience of negative emotions; left front EGG activation is associated with the experience of positive emotions. Yet, the authors on this article would like its readers to consider the corresponding EEG patterns under the broader categories of approach-avoidance emotions. This theory indicates that approach emotions such as joy, interest, and anger activate the left frontal regions and avoidance emotions such as distress and disgust activates the right frontal regions. Thus, if EEG were to measure brain activity before experimentation results would show that the mothers who were intrusive (approach) would exhibit left frontal EEG activation patterns, the mothers who were withdrawn (avoidance) would exhibit right frontal EEG activation.
The EEG for this study then yielded the following results. In general, The EEG showed greater relative right-frontal EEG activation (associated with feelings of distress and disgust) when listening for classical music and left-frontal EEG activation (associated with feelings of joy and interest) for rock music suggests a preference for rock music. “Although the intrusive group EEG values did not differ significantly across music types, the EEG for the withdrawn group suggested less negative (less right-frontal EEG) values for the rock than for the classical music.” (Boso et al., 2006). In conclusion, rock music elevated the moods of withdrawn depressive mothers as the study predicted but classical music did not show any benefit to the intrusive depressive group as originally theorized.
Potential Contributions and Author’s Areas of Learning
Music is something we often take for granted. It seems that instinctively it is understood by anyone and everyone. From its tempo, beat, and lyrics we naturally understand the meaning and the message that it seeks to convey. Music has always been a part of human existence. It is common understanding that different types, tempos, rhythms and such of music elicit different emotional responses within us. What is not common knowledge are the body’s physiological responses. In recent years, music has been an area of interest to be studied in a scientific approach in search of understanding its effects in clinical management in neurological and psychiatric disorders. Both articles mentioned above are such research. They believe that the understanding thereof can make significant contributions in clinical settings.
The first article, “Neurophysiology and Neurobiology of the Musical Experience” brings forth many interesting details such as how music stimuli are not only processed via normal auditory physiological pathways but also activates skin receptors. Another interesting detail presented in this article is how perceived pleasant musical stimuli activated frontal lobes as opposed to the temporal lobes activated by unpleasant.
The second article entitled, “Music Effects on EEG in Intrusive and Withdrawn Mothers with Depressive Symptoms” found that rock music was generally beneficial to all its participants regardless of interaction type. This shows that rock music can be used as an energizing tool in depression and its symptoms. Both articles agree that preliminary studies such these needs to be confirmed and expanded on.
Both articles have deepened the author’s understanding on basic physiology and the need to understand it.
Conclusion
Music can serve humankind beyond social interaction and self expression. The two articles above shows that music works in deeper levels than one may initially think. It have come to this author’s attention how complex music is as a stimuli as it shows to activate receptors of both skin and auditory systems alike and affecting not only emotional areas of the brain but also areas responsible for language comprehension. It shows that it can be therapeutic and effective in reducing stress and depression. The ability of music stimuli to cause biochemicals such as dopamine, endocannabiniods naloxone supports this. It shows to play a promising role in the treatment of diseases both psychiatric and neurologic. Unfortunately, as both article mentions, there are limited scientific research on this.
References
Anne J Blood, & Robert J Zatorre. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98(20), 11818-11823. Retrieved November 23, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 86813640).
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